Timeline of the John Adams presidency

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a series about
John Adams
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1st Vice President of the United States
2nd President of the United States
State of the Union Address
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John Adams's signature
Seal of the President of the United States

The presidency of John Adams began on March 4, 1797, when John Adams was inaugurated the 2nd president of the United States and ended on March 4, 1801.

1797

March 1797

April 1797

May 1797

June 1797

  • June 5 – The United States Senate confirms Adams' nominations for the envoy to France.[2]
  • June 12 – Adams delivers a message to Congress recommending the creation of Natchez, which was eventually created as the Mississippi Territory.[2]
  • June 20 – Adams nominates Elbridge Gerry for the envoy to France after Dana declines.[2]
  • June 22 – The Senate confirms Gerry's appointment to the envoy.[2]
  • June 24 – Adams signs a bill allowing him to command state governments to raise militias of 80,000 men.[2]

July 1797

  • July – The Senate authorizes the addition of twelve frigates to the navy, with 16 supporting and 13 opposed.[15]
  • July 10 – The special session of Congress adjourns.[16] Several members of the Federalist Party express reservations about Adams' proposed defense initiatives, and the session ends without their passage despite the Federalists' majority.[17]
  • July 19 – Adams departs for his home in Quincy, Massachusetts, after Congress adjourns.[15][18]
  • July 22 – Adams establishes the United States Mint and ends the recognition of foreign currencies as legal tender.[2]
  • July 26 – Adams' son John Quincy Adams marries Louisa Catherine Johnson, but he is not informed of this for another two months.[18]

August 1797

September 1797

October 1797

  • Early October – Adams departs from Quincy, but he is forced to stop upon learning of an outbreak of yellow fever in Philadelphia. He stays with his daughter Nabby over the following weeks.[18]
  • October 4 – The diplomatic envoy arrives in France.[20]
  • October 18 – In what came to be known as the XYZ Affair, French officials solicit a bribe from the American envoy to France if they are to speak to foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord.[3]
  • October 21 – The USS Constitution launches at Boston.[11]

November 1797

  • November – Adams arrives in Philadelphia.[21]
  • November 22 – Adams delivers the 1797 State of the Union Address. He talks about national defense and says it should be funded by taxes instead of loans.[2]
  • November 28 – Adams formally expresses his belief to the Senate that a merchant navy should be established.[2]

December 1797

1798

January 1798

February 1798

  • February – Adams reports to Congress that a French privateer attacked a British merchant ship in Charleston Harbor.[23]

March 1798

  • March 4 – Adams receives letters from the diplomatic envoy to France describing the XYZ affair.[20]
  • March 5 – Adams delivers the initial uncoded letter about the XYZ affair to Congress. Coded messages remain to be decoded.[24]
  • March 12 – The final letter to Adams about the XYZ affair is decoded.[25]
  • March 13 – Adams consults with his cabinet to decide whether to share the full news of the XYZ affair with Congress and whether to propose a declaration of war.[26]
  • March 19 – Adams reports to Congress that negotiations with France were unsuccessful. He does not disclose the nature of the XYZ affair.[27][25] In his speech, he argues that the problems in France are Europe's concern and that the United States should not become involved.[28]
  • March 23 – Adams sends an order recalling the diplomatic envoy if negotiations had not begun.[27]
  • March 30 – Congressman William Branch Giles introduces a resolution demanding release of the diplomatic envoy's reports.[29]

April 1798

  • April 2 – Representative Albert Gallatin, leader of the Democratic Republicans, speaks in the House of Representatives to demand Adams release the diplomatic envoy's messages.[30] The House votes to approve Giles' resolution demanding the release of its reports as well as its original instructions, with 65 in favor and 27 opposed.[29]
  • April 3 – Adams reports the XYZ affair to Congress, detailing attempts by the French government to solicit bribes from the American envoy.[2][3][31]
  • April 7 – Adams signs a bill to create the Mississippi Territory and ban the importation of foreign slaves into it.[2] He names Natchez as its capital and appoints Winthrop Sargent as its governor.[3]
  • April 8 – Representative Samuel Sewall introduces a bill that would implement Adams' desired naval defenses and a provisional army.[32]
  • April 25 – The performer Gilbert Fox premiers the song "Hail, Columbia" by Joseph Hopkinson in a theater on Chestnut Street. Abigail Adams is in attendance, and John Adams attends a performance a few days later.[33]
  • April 27 – Congress permits Adams to organize a fleet of 12 gunboats.[34]
  • April 30 – Adams signs a bill creating the Department of the Navy.[2]

May 1798

  • May – Congress and the public increasingly support the creation of an army as rumors spread that France is building an invasion enforce and engaging in covert actions within the United States.[35]
  • May 3 – Adams appoints Benjamin Stoddert as the first Secretary of the Navy.[3]
  • May 4 – A Senate committee releases a report suggesting the creation of what became the Alien and Sedition Acts.[36]
  • May 21 – The Senate confirms the appointment of Stoddert as Secretary of the Navy.[2]
  • May 27 – French newspapers report that the XYZ affair has been made public in the United States, effectively ending negotiations between the countries.[37]
  • May 28 – Adams signs a bill granting him the power to raise a federal army of 10,000 men in the event of an invasion.[2] It also grants him the power to authorize seizure of French vessels that attack American merchantmen.[3]

June 1798

  • June
    • The Non-Intercourse Act makes it illegal for Americans to engage in trade with France.[38]
    • Newspaper editor Benjamin Franklin Bache is arrested for libel against the president. He will die before reaching trial.[39]
  • June 12 – Adams receives a letter from diplomat William Vans Murray reporting that Elbridge Gerry had stayed in Paris to continue negotiations unilaterally after the other two members of the diplomatic envoy, John Marshall and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, had left.[40]
  • June 18 – Adams signs the first of four Alien and Sedition Acts: the Amendments to the Naturalization Act of 1795. This mandates non-citizen residents to register and bars citizenship for people from nations at war with the United States.[2] It requires that residents live in the United States and declare their intention to seek citizenship for five years before they can be naturalized.[3]
  • June 19 – John Marshall arrives in Philadelphia after leaving France.[41]
  • June 21 – Adams delivers a message to Congress, declaring that he "will never send another minister to France without assurances that he will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a great, free, powerful, and independent nation". The Arch Federalists see this as provoking war.[42]
  • June 25 – Adams signs the second of four Alien and Sedition Acts: the Alien Act. This gives him the power to deport any non-citizen residents he deems a threat to the United States.[3]

July 1798

  • July
    • Journalist John Daly Burk and Congressman Matthew Lyon are arrested for libel against the president. Lyon is sentenced to four months in jail, while Burk goes into hiding after Aaron Burr pays his bail.[39]
  • July 1 – The Federalists try and fail to gain the votes for a declaration of war against France.[43]
  • July 2 – Adams nominates George Washington to be lieutenant general and commander-in-chief of the army. The Senate confirms him the following day.[2] Adams also submits the names of other political figures to be generals, including Aaron Burr, Alexander Hamilton, and William Stephens Smith.[44]
  • July 6 – Adams signs the third of four Alien and Sedition Acts: the Alien Enemies Act. This legalizes the arrest or deportation of men from nations that are enemies of the United States.[3]
  • July 7
    • Adams signs a bill voiding all treaties between France and the United States.[2]
    • Adams formally names George Washington commander-in-chief of the army.[3][45]
  • July 9 – The Quasi–War begins when Adams signs a bill granting all American vessels legal authority to capture armed French vessels anywhere in the ocean.[2]
  • July 13 – Washington accepts Adams' nomination as commander-in-chief.[2]
  • July 14
    • Adams signs the fourth and final of the Alien and Sedition Acts: the Sedition Act. This criminalizes false or malicious statements about the government, obstruction of government operations, and incitement of insurrection or unlawful assembly.[2] It enables the Adams administration to penalize criticism against it.[36]
    • Adams signs a bill setting taxes on dwellings, land, and slaves so as to fund military preparation amid tensions with France.[2]
  • July 16 – Adams signs a bill defining the structure of the army.[2] Congress adjourns.[44]
  • July 18 – Adams appointed 14 officers to the army. This includes his rival Alexander Hamilton, whom he appoints inspector general.[2]
  • July 25 – Adams departs from Philadelphia for the summer.[44]

August 1798

  • August 8 – John and Abigail Adams arrive in Quincy. Abigail had become seriously ill amid an outbreak of yellow fever and would require rest over the following months. John continues working in the room across the hall.[46]

September 1798

October 1798

  • October 1 – Elbridge Gerry returns to the United States from France. He reports that France is open to peace.[47]
  • October 4 – Adams and Gerry have a meeting in Quincy.[47]
  • October 8 – Adams receives a letter from Washington in which he demands the ability to select his own general staff if he is to remain commander-in-chief of the army. Adams sends a letter accepting these terms despite his displeasure with Washington's choice of Hamilton as inspector general.[48]

November 1798

  • November 9 – Napoleon carries out a coup in France and seizes power.[49]
  • November 10
    • Thomas Jefferson publishes the Kentucky Resolution condemning the Sedition Act as abuse of power.[2]
    • George Washington arrives in Philadelphia in his capacity as commander-in-chief of the army.[50]
  • November 12 – Adams departs from Quincy with his nephew William Smith Shaw while Abigail remains behind to recover from her illness.[51]
  • November 16 – The state legislature of Kentucky adopts the Kentucky Resolution.[3]
  • Mid-November – A British squadron intercepts and searches the USS Baltimore sloop-of-war. Adams dismisses the ship's captain, Isaac Phillips, for allowing the search without resistance.[52]
  • November 25 – Adams returns to the capital in Philadelphia.[53] He meets with his cabinet to consider whether a new diplomatic envoy should be sent to France or if war should be declared.[53]

December 1798

  • December – Adams hosts Haitian diplomat Joseph Bunel to negotiate the end of an embargo on Haiti that had been imposed while it was under French control. Bunel is the first black man to dine with an American president.[54]
  • December 4 – Washington departs from Philadelphia.[54]
  • December 8 – Adams delivers the 1798 State of the Union Address.[2]
  • December 21 – James Madison publishes the Virginia Resolution condemning the Alien and Sedition Acts as abuse of power.[2]

1799

January 1799

February 1799

  • February – News reaches the United States of Napoleon's seizure of power in France.[49]
  • February 2 – Adams releases the report from Elbridge Gerry about the diplomatic situation in France.[55]
  • February 9 – The USS Constellation, commanded by Thomas Truxtun, wins a battle and captures the French L'Insurgente. L'Insurgente had to this point attacked several American merchant ships.[56] This is the first major battle of the Quasi–War.[57]
  • February 18 – Against the wishes of his party, Adams announces his intention to form a new diplomatic envoy to France. He nominates William Vans Murray as its leader.[58][59] Adams decides not to send the envoy until he can affirm that France is open to negotiation.[60]
  • February 23 – Adams meets with a commission of his rival Arch Federalists, led by Theodore Sedgwick, to negotiate Adams' decision to appoint William Vans Murray in the diplomatic envoy to France. Fearing that such collaboration might be unconstitutional, Adams agrees on the condition that their meeting not be included in the report.[61]
  • February 25
    • At the urging of his rival High Federalists, Adams agrees to nominate Oliver Ellsworth and Patrick Henry to the diplomatic envoy alongside William Vans Murray.[60]
    • The necessity of lumber for naval purposes leads to Adams signing the first American law governing forests.[62]
  • February 27 – The Senate confirms Adams' nominations for the diplomatic envoy to France.[2]

March 1799

  • March 3 – Adams nominates Patrick Henry and Oliver Ellsworth to join William Vans Murray in the diplomatic envoy to France. The Senate confirms his nominations.[57]
  • March 6 – Farmers in the Pennsylvania Dutch community lead Fries's Rebellion, an armed uprising against federal tax collectors in Bucks County, Pennsylvania.[2]
  • March 7 – John Fries, the leader of Fries's Rebellion, leads 150 men to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where they force a marshal to release three people who has been arrested for not paying the federal tax.[63]
  • March 10 – Adams holds a cabinet meeting in his home to discuss what terms for peace they would demand from France.[64]
  • March 12 – Adams issues a proclamation declaring the actions of Fries's Rebellion to be treason and orders the rebels to disperse.[65] He authorizes military force to end the rebellion.[2]
  • Mid-March – Adams leaves Philadelphia for his home in Quincy, Massachusetts, eight days after Congress adjourns.[66] He works out of Quincy until September.[67]

April 1799

May 1799

  • May – Adams' wife Abigail Adams holds her first reception as first lady.[68]
  • May 15 – John Fries and two associates are found guilty of treason for rebelling against federal taxes. Their conviction is later voided by a technicality and a second trial is scheduled.[65]

June 1799

July 1799

August 1799

September 1799

  • September 9 – Three naval squadrons, each made up of one frigate and five brigs, are created and launched.[62]
  • September 30 – Adams departs from his home in Quincy.[70]

October 1799

  • October – Adams learns that his son Charles has become an alcoholic and decides to "renounce him".[70]
  • October 15 – Adams holds an evening meeting with his cabinet that lasts until nearly midnight to consider revising the instructions for the diplomatic envoy to France. They determine that any agreement should not involve protection of French territories in the Western Hemisphere but should include a board of commissioners to resolve American claims of damage against France.[71]
  • October 16 – Adams announces his decision to form a diplomatic envoy.[72]
  • October 26 – Political philosopher Thomas Cooper is convicted of libel under the Sedition Act for his criticism of John Adams.[3]

November 1799

  • November 3 – Oliver Ellsworth and William Richardson Davie depart from Newport, Rhode Island, as a diplomatic envoy to France.[73]
  • November 15 – The diplomatic envoy departs from the United States to France.[72]
  • November 27 – The diplomatic envoy arrives at Lisbon, where they rest on their way to France.[73]

December 1799

  • December 3 – Adams delivers the 1799 State of the Union Address.[2] Unlike his previous speeches, Adams calls for peace.[74]
  • December 6 – Adams refers the Treaty of Amity to Congress for ratification.[2]
  • December 14 – George Washington dies.[2]
  • December 21 – After a delay caused by bad weather, the diplomatic envoy departs from Portugal to Paris.[75]

1800

January 1800

  • January 10 – Congress ratifies the Treaty with Tunis, which had been signed in 1797.[3]
  • January 17 – Adams signs a bill criminalizing provocative communications with Native American tribes.[2]

February 1800

  • February 1 – The USS Constellation wins a battle against the French ship La Vengeance.[3]
  • February 20 – Adams signs a bill ending enlistment in the army until war between France and the United States takes place.[2]

March 1800

  • March 2 – The diplomatic envoy arrives in Paris.

April 1800

  • April 1 – The diplomatic envoy to France reaches its deadline to return, but they choose to continue negotiations.[76]
  • April 4 – Adams signs the Bankruptcy Act of 1800, offering debt protection to traders.[77] It will be repealed three years later.[2]
  • April 24

May 1800

  • May – Journalist James T. Callender is sentenced to nine months in jail for publicly criticizing the president.[79]
  • May 3
  • May 5 – Adams has a meeting with James McHenry, his Secretary of War, which becomes a heated argument as Adams accuses the cabinet of plotting against him and he unloads his scorn for Hamilton. Adams expressed remorse for his comments.[81][82]
  • May 6 – McHenry declares his resignation as Secretary of War, effective June 1.[83]
  • May 7 – Adams signs a bill establishing the Indiana Territory from part of the Northwest Territory.[2]
  • May 10 – Adams sends a message to Timothy Pickering, his Secretary of State, suggesting that Pickering resign.[84]
  • May 12 – Adams receives a reply from Pickering that he will not resign as Secretary of State. Adams dismisses him from the position an hour later.[85] This is the first instance of a president removing a cabinet member.[2] Adams names John Marshall as his new Secretary of State and names Samuel Dexter to be McHenry's replacement as Secretary of War.[86] He also orders that the army, which had been placed under Hamilton's charge, be dissolved. The changes effectively mark the end of Hamilton and the High Federalists having influence in the federal government.[87]
  • May 13 – Adams signs a bill establishing that the next session of Congress will be held in Washington, D.C.[2]
  • May 15
    • Adams orders that the transfer of the federal government from Philadelphia to Washington D.C. to begin.[88]
    • Hamilton's army begins demobilizing.[87]
  • May 21 – Adams issues pardons to the leaders of Fries's Rebellion, sparing them the death penalty. This is protested by his new cabinet, the Federalist Party, and the Pennsylvania German community.[2]
  • May 27 – Adams leaves Philadelphia for Washington, D.C. with his steward John Briesler and nephew William Smith Shaw.[89]

June 1800

  • June 3 – Adams arrives in Washington, D.C.[89] He takes occupancy in a room at a tavern while construction continues on what would later be called the White House.[90]
  • June 14 – Adams leaves Washington, D.C. for Quincy.[91]

July 1800

August 1800

September 1800

  • September 30 – The Convention of 1800 creates peace between France and the United States after a new French state is established by Napoleon.[2] The diplomatic envoy chooses to sign it even though it does not include the American demands of France renouncing the previous treaties or compensating the U.S.[76] Although the physical signing of the document took place at two o' clock in the morning on October 1, September 30 is understood to be the official date.[92] The signing of the treaty effectively ends the Quasi–War.[93]

October 1800

November 1800

  • November 1 – Adams moves into the White House, then known as the President's House.[95][96]
  • November 7 – News reaches the American public that a peace treaty has been signed with France.[92][97]
  • November 11 – The 1800 elections take place in the United States. Adams loses the presidential election to Thomas Jefferson.[2]
  • November 13 – Adams learns he has lost the presidential election after receiving unofficial results from South Carolina.[98]
  • November 16 – Abigail Adams arrives in Philadelphia.[97]
  • November 22 – Adams delivers the 1800 State of the Union Address where he expresses optimism in regard to relations with France.[2] This is the first joint session of Congress in the United States Capitol.[99]
  • November 30 – Adams' son Charles dies of dropsy and possibly cirrhosis.[100]

December 1800

1801

January 1801

  • January 1 – Adams hosts the first White House New Year's Day reception.[101][102]
  • January 20 – Adams nominates John Marshall to the Supreme Court to replace Oliver Ellsworth.[2]
  • January 23 – A vote to ratify the Convention of 1800 fails in the Senate with 16 votes in favor and 14 against, falling below the required 20-vote supermajority.[103][104]
  • January 27 – The Senate confirms Marshall's nomination to the Supreme Court.[2][105]

February 1801

  • February 3 – The Senate approves the Convention of 1800 with France.[106]
  • February 4 – John Marshall accepts Adams' nomination as Supreme Justice of the United States.[107]
  • February 11 – Electoral votes are counted in Congress. As electoral ballots made no distinction between presidential and vice presidential votes, Jefferson ties with his vice presidential running mate Aaron Burr.[2]
  • February 13
    • Adams signs the Judiciary Act of 1801 to reshape the federal judiciary.[2]
    • Abigail Adams and their granddaughter Susanna Adams depart from the White House.[108]
  • February 16 – Adams holds his final presidential dinner, hosting a delegation of Indians.[109]
  • February 17 – The House of Representatives votes to confirm Jefferson as the winner of the presidential election.[2][110]
  • February 20
  • February 24 – Adams finishes nominating judges to federal courts.[109]

March 1801

  • March 4 – Adams' presidency ends and Jefferson is inaugurated as president.[3]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 70.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf "John Adams Event Timeline". The American Presidency Project. March 23, 2024. Retrieved January 28, 2025.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "John Adams - Key Events". Miller Center of Public Affairs. October 7, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2025.
  4. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 29–30.
  5. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 475–476.
  6. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 477.
  7. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 39–40.
  8. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 478.
  9. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 481.
  10. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 482.
  11. ^ a b c Brown 1975, p. 72.
  12. ^ Brown 1975, p. 42.
  13. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 353.
  14. ^ Brown 1975, p. 43.
  15. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 45.
  16. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 490–491.
  17. ^ Brown 1975, p. 32.
  18. ^ a b c McCullough 2001, p. 491.
  19. ^ Brown 1975, p. 60.
  20. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 48.
  21. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 493.
  22. ^ Brown 1975, p. 151.
  23. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 494.
  24. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 495.
  25. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 496.
  26. ^ Brown 1975, p. 49.
  27. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 50.
  28. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 354.
  29. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 51.
  30. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 497.
  31. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 102.
  32. ^ Brown 1975, p. 53.
  33. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 500.
  34. ^ Brown 1975, p. 73.
  35. ^ Ferling 1992, pp. 356–357.
  36. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 121.
  37. ^ Brown 1975, p. 81.
  38. ^ Brown 1975, p. 158.
  39. ^ a b Ferling 1992, p. 367.
  40. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 502–503.
  41. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 503.
  42. ^ Brown 1975, p. 57.
  43. ^ Brown 1975, p. 58.
  44. ^ a b c McCullough 2001, p. 507.
  45. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 187.
  46. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 508–509, 513.
  47. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 511.
  48. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 512.
  49. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 534.
  50. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 516.
  51. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 514.
  52. ^ Brown 1975, p. 152.
  53. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 88.
  54. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 519.
  55. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 377.
  56. ^ Brown 1975, p. 74.
  57. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 525.
  58. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 523.
  59. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 379.
  60. ^ a b Ferling 1992, p. 380.
  61. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 98–100.
  62. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 75.
  63. ^ Brown 1975, p. 127.
  64. ^ Brown 1975, p. 101.
  65. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 128.
  66. ^ Brown 1975, p. 136.
  67. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 526.
  68. ^ Brown 1975, p. 34.
  69. ^ Brown 1975, p. 161.
  70. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 529.
  71. ^ Brown 1975, p. 111.
  72. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 531.
  73. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 162.
  74. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 532.
  75. ^ Brown 1975, pp. 162–163.
  76. ^ a b Brown 1975, p. 165.
  77. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 103.
  78. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 121.
  79. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 536–537.
  80. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 393.
  81. ^ McCullough 2001, pp. 538–539.
  82. ^ Ferling 1992, pp. 393–394.
  83. ^ Brown 1975, p. 168.
  84. ^ Brown 1975, p. 169.
  85. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 394.
  86. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 539.
  87. ^ a b Ferling 1992, p. 395.
  88. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 140.
  89. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 541.
  90. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 156.
  91. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 543.
  92. ^ a b c d Brown 1975, p. 173.
  93. ^ Brown 1975, p. 166.
  94. ^ Brown 1975, p. 195.
  95. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 295.
  96. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 551.
  97. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 552.
  98. ^ Brown 1975, p. 189.
  99. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 554.
  100. ^ a b c McCullough 2001, p. 555.
  101. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 1.
  102. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 558.
  103. ^ Brown 1975, p. 174.
  104. ^ Ferling 1992, p. 408.
  105. ^ Brandus 2018, p. 24.
  106. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 560.
  107. ^ Brown 1975, p. 201.
  108. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 561.
  109. ^ a b McCullough 2001, p. 563.
  110. ^ McCullough 2001, p. 562.
  111. ^ Brown 1975, p. 205.

References

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