Persian revolts against Ali (656-661)
| Persian Rebellion (656-661) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of First Fitna and Muslim conquest of Persia | |||||||||
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| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Rashidun Caliphate | Persian Rebels | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Ali ibn Abi Talib Abdullah ibn Abbas Ziyad ibn Abih Jadah bin Hubayrah | Collective leadership | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 4000+ | Unknown | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown | Heavy | ||||||||
The Persian Rebellions took place during the First Fitna, during the political instability of the Caliphate of Ali. [1]
Background
The Persians revolted against the early Arab caliphs due to several factors of cultural, religious, and economic discontents . After the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab conquests, Persian culture experienced severe setback . Much of the population viewed the Arab rule as a foreign occupation over the indigenous institutions and imposed non indigenous government structures. Arabic became the language of administration with Persian elites loosing their power over the state which led to further cultural conflicts.
In 653 , a revolt broke out in Istakhr during the reign of Uthman with the refusal of paying Jizya . Abdallah bin Abbas was sent to suppress the rebellion , the civilan population was massacred and the revolt was suppressed. [2]
Socio-Economic conflicts
The followers of Zoroastrianism finded themselves increasingly discriminated and marginalised . Initially the Arabs considered them to be the People of the Book , however due to high taxation and restrictions over the years widespread discontent in the region . The destruction of fire temples and religious customs further made Arab rule unpopular among the population.[3]
Economically, many Persians suffered under the taxation of Jizya and Kharaj, more exclusively under corrupt governors . This became an important factor for several revolts throughout the region, like the Tabaristan uprising and other localized resistance to Arab rule .[4]
Islamic sources recognise the Persian resistance faced during its conquest. The Isfahan province held a rebellion after its initial submission, enforcing renewed military efforts to re-establish Arab control over it.[5] Moreover, the nobility and common people in various regions like Khorasan and Fars offered resistance to Caliph Uthman's reign, resulting in multiple military responses to suppress the rebels .[6]
Revolts against Ali 656-661
During the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib, some Persians rose in uprisings due to discontent from the Arab conquests and internal instability within the early Muslim state. Many Persian Muslims felt isolated by the tribal bias of the Arab elite and the limited number of non-Arabs into the political body of the caliphate .[7]
Moreover, the instability of the First Fitna and Ali's conflicts with Mu'awiya I supplied opportunities for Persian rebels to hold uprisings, especially in regions like Khorasan where loyalty to the Sasanian legacy was strong .[8]
After the Arab conquest of Persia, the city of Istakhr remained as the capital of resistance against the newly established Islamic administration . The city, strongly held to the Sasanian legacy which became a crucial subject for the rebels who fought to reclaim the loss of Persian nobility and sought to restore the imperialist rule of the Persian nobility . During Ali ibn Abi Talib's reign, this resistance had emerged into a greater uprising . Mainly in the regions where Persian clergy opposed the centralised power under the Arabs, which they viewed as a threat to their heritage.
After the people of Fars and Kerman rose in revolt and objected to pay Kharaj, Ali sent Ziyad with 4000 troops and suppressed their revolt.[9][10]
Khorasan also rebelled against Ali, Ali sent Hubayrah to suppress the uprising. The rebels refused to surrender and Hubayrah returned to Ali. Ali sent Khulayd , who besieged Nishapur and Marv until rebels vowed peace. Hubayrah took with him maids of royal blood who wished to marry Hasan and Hussein which got refused by Ali.[9][11] Persian Muslims and Christians participated in their revolt in Khuzestan against Ali, however was failed and their leader being killed.[10] Overall, resulting in the failure of the Persians to gain their independence from the Rashidun Caliphate.
Aftermath
Eastern Iran was recaptured by Mu'awiya I after the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate . He sent numerous campaigns and Basran forces to collect tribute across the region. [12]
See also
References
- ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2012-02-16). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020882-0.
- ^ Nezhad, Shahin (2023). Irānshahr and the Downfall of the Sassanid Dynasty: Persia at the Eve of the Arab Invasions. Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8325-5611-2.
- ^ Boyce, Mary (2001). Zoroastrians : their religious beliefs and practices. London ; New York : Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8.
- ^ Daniel, Elton L. The History of Iran. Greenwood Press, 2000.
- ^ Political Development - III, History of Islam. Retrieved from https://historyofislam.org/political-development-iii/
- ^ Fall of the Sassanid Empire: The Arab Conquest of Persia 633-654 CE, TheCollector. Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/fall-of-the-sassanid-empire-arab-conquest-persia/
- ^ Crone, Patricia. The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
- ^ Shaban, M.A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation. Cambridge University Press, 1971.
- ^ a b al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir (1996). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume 17: The First Civil War: From the Battle of Siffīn to the Death of ʿAlī A.D. 656–661/A.H. 36–40. Translated by G. R. Hawting. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791423943.
- ^ a b Frye, Richard Nelson (2000). The golden age of Persia : the Arabs in the East. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-84212-011-8.
- ^ Tārīkh-i Ṭabarī (Urdu) (in Urdu). Dar al-Isha‘at. 1924.
- ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2012-02-16). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020882-0.