James Hayward (missionary)

James Hayward (1 July 1769 – 5 November 1850) was an English Protestant missionary affiliated with the London Missionary Society (LMS). He is best known for his work in the Society Islands and later in New South Wales, Australia, during the early 19th century. Hayward was among the missionaries sent to Tahiti aboard the Duff (1794 ship), which was captured by a French privateer en route. He remained in Tahiti during a defining period of religious change, when the inhabitants renounced idolatry, human sacrifice, infantry and embraced Christianity, and he played a notable role in that transformation. In his final 27 years residing in Sydney, he was known for his quiet and steadfast Christian character.

James Hayward was born on 1 July 1769, in Tisbury, Wiltshire, Great Britain. He was among the missionaries who sailed for the South Pacific aboard the Duff, under Captain Thomas Robson, Wilson's first mate on the previous voyage. The expedition departed England on 19 December 1798, to begin its inaugural missionary voyage.^[1][2][3] Their mission was abruptly interrupted when, on 19 February 1799, the Duff was captured off Cap Frio, South America, by the French privateer Buonaparte.^{[4][5][6][3][7]} The missionaries and their families were released and well treated in Montevideo, where they remained for six weeks before being compelled to leave. The Duff was listed for sale at that site by those who had taken it into their possession. On 7 May 1799, they departed Montevideo aboard a brig bound for Rio de Janeiro, but the vessel was intercepted by a Portuguese fleet on 5 June and brought to Portugal.^[8][9] Upon their arrival in Lisbon on 21 September, Hayward and his fellow missionaries were released.^[10] They departed Lisbon on 4 October and returned to England on 13 October 1799.^[11][12][3] This setback was further exacerbated by the repatriation, during the course of 1798, of 11 out of the 18 missionaries who had disembarked at Matavai on 5 March 1797.

The second voyage of the Duff was mentioned in several articles published in 1885 in the newspaper The Illustrated Sydney News.^[13][14][15]

Despite earlier setbacks, James Hayward remained steadfast in his missionary vocation. He embarked on his second voyage to the South Seas aboard the Royal Admiral, a long-distance mail ship of the East India Company under Captain William Wilson, designated to transport approximately 300 convicts to the penal colony at Sydney.^[7] The ship departed Spithead on 15 May, sailing first to East Cowes and continuing along the English coast. After a week of coastal navigation, the Royal Admiral finally quit English waters on 23 May, making sail eastward to begin its transoceanic journey.^[16] Gaol fever had already begun to spread during the voyage, claiming the lives of 23 prisoners, the ship’s young surgeon Samuel Turner, four seamen, a convict's wife, and a convict's child.^[17] The Royal Admiral reached Rio de Janeiro on 12 August 1800.^[18] It later arrived in Port Jackson on 20 November 1800 with 257 male prisoners, having lost 43 convicts in total to the illness.^[19] Many of those disembarked were so debilitated that Governor King reported they would be unable to work for some time. He documented their condition in a despatch to the Transport Commissioners.

Following a three-month stopover in Sydney, the Royal Admiral departed on 30 March 1801, bound for Tahiti. On 10 July 1801, James Hayward arrived in Matavai Bay, accompanied by fellow missionaries including the Welshman John Davies, as well as Charles Wilson, John Youl, James Elder, William Scott, and Samuel Teissier^[3][7]. Upon their arrival, the group was received by Pōmare II (then known as "Otoo"), alongside his father Pōmare I, also known as Vairaʻatoa, and his mother Itia, signifying early diplomatic engagement between the missionaries and the ruling Tahitian elite.^[20]

The initial attempts to introduce Christianity in Tahiti unfolded gradually, yet with significant impact. The first sermons were delivered without the aid of an interpreter on 16 August 1801, followed by the creation of the earliest written text in a Polynesian language on 8 October of the same year. These moments marked a foundational milestone in the linguistic and theological exchanges between European missionaries and the Tahitian people.^[21] However, missionary endeavors soon encountered resistance from established political systems and deep-rooted spiritual traditions.

In March 1802, a conflict broke out between Pōmare II and the Atehuru, a western tribal group in Tahiti, over control of the idol representing the deity 'Oro. The idol was seized by force by Pōmare II, abruptly terminating negotiations between the opposing factions.^[22][23][24]. The rising tensions culminated in a series of violent confrontations, retrospectively known as the "War of Rua." The conflict ended on 4 July 1802 with the death of Rua, the leader of the Atehuruans, aided by Captain Bishop and a contingent of 24 Europeans.^{[25][26][27][28]} Subsequently, on 3 September 1803, Pōmare I died.^[29]

At the beginning of 1804, Pōmare II exercised uncontested authority over Tahiti, retaining possession of the sacred image of the god 'Oro. Troubled by persistent fears concerning the spirit of his deceased father, he temporarily withdrew to a residence near the marae Utu'aimahurau in Atehuru, where the image of 'Oro remained following negotiations with members of the Oropaʻa clan, affiliated with the chieftaincy of Atehuru (encompassing present-day Punaauia and Paea). In May 1804, he established permanent residence in Varari, on the island of Mo'orea, bringing with him the deity 'Oro, who remained central to his religious practice.^[30][31][32]

There, at the marae Taputapuatea in Papetoai and the marae Nu'urua in the Varari district, Pōmare II consolidated his territorial claims and ceremonial titles. As part of his strategy to extend influence, he appointed his infant half-sister Teari'ia'etua, daughter of his mother Itia and her consort Tenania of Huahine, as his representative in Mo‘orea. This assertion of authority was met with resistance. The ra'atiras, local chiefs and landowners of Mo'orea, refused to acknowledge Teari'ia'etua as their legitimate leader and declined to relinquish their firearms. The resulting conflict led to the deaths of nine men and one woman. Despite this violent episode, peace was soon restored.^{[33][34][35][31][36][32]}

On 8 March 1805, John Jefferson and John Davies convened a significant meeting with the objective of formalizing a standardized Tahitian alphabet, thereby establishing the linguistic framework necessary for the eventual compilation of an English–Tahitian dictionary.^[37]. Their collaborative efforts marked a critical juncture in the linguistic and evangelical enterprise undertaken by the London Missionary Society in Tahiti. During their residence in Matavai, under the patronage of King Pōmare II, the missionaries benefited from consistent and generous provisions, which ensured their material well-being and enabled sustained engagement in broader cultural and religious initiatives.^[38][39][40].

In October 1805, missionaries James Hayward and Henry Nott reported that Itia, mother of Pōmare II, demonstrated a keen interest in acquiring literacy, mirroring her son's enthusiasm for written instruction. She further expressed a desire for her young daughter, referred to as the "Queen" of Mo'orea, to receive formal education in reading and writing.^[41] At the time, Teari‘ia‘etua was approximately nine years old. She died in 1811.^[42][43][44].

During his nineteen-month stay on Mo‘orea, Pōmare II lived in relative isolation, visited only occasionally by missionaries who observed a deepening of his personal struggles. He was reportedly more indulgent than ever in ava drinking and possibly engaged in behaviors considered morally inappropriate by missionary standards. Additionally, he suffered from an undisclosed illness, which he refused to speak about publicly, as illness was viewed as a source of shame in Tahitian society at the time.^[45]

On 15 January 1806, Pōmare II accompanied the return of the sacred image of 'Oro to Tahiti.^[46][47] During the passage and for some time afterward, the channel between Mo'orea and Tahiti was closed to all canoes not affiliated with the official procession.^[48] The procession attracted large crowds at Nanu Bay in Pare (now the bay of Papeete), including many participants from Ra'iātea, as well as Pōmare II’s mother Itia, his stepfather Otihe, and his half-sister Teariʻiaʻetua. The event emphasized the regional importance of the ritual, marked by vast collections of offerings to the god, including several human sacrifices.^[49]

On 27 January 1806, the god 'Oro was transported to the marae Hitimahana near Point Venus, accompanied by five other deities: Hiro, Tane, Temeharo, Ruahatu, and Huaima'a. The latter two, Ruahatu and Huaima'a, were venerated as shark gods. They were reportedly scheduled to return to Mo'orea following the installation of 'Oro's image at Tautira. Around the marae, the decomposing bodies of men sacrificed to 'Oro hung in long baskets suspended from tree branches, a grim testament to the ritual’s intensity. Prayers and ceremonies were performed at the site over the following days.^[50][47]

On 30 January, Pōmare II departed for Pare accompanied by his full retinue. The inhabitants of the district had made preparations to receive and feed the king and his entourage, and to present their tehe, or substantial offerings of bark cloth. That evening, a quantity of cloth was delivered to the missionaries along with a small hog, offered as a gift for King George III. This ritual formed part of a broader ceremonial tradition observed during public gatherings, wherein the names of principal chiefs were recited individually, each followed by the presentation of a gift. Since the time of Captain James Cook, the name of King George had been incorporated into this ceremonial list. When his name was called, any Englishman present was expected to respond and accept the gift on behalf of the British monarch. In the absence of an English representative, the offering was retained by the local participants.^[51][52]

On 24 May, the inhabitants of Matavai presented King Pōmare II with a tribute comprising twenty hogs, a selection of English and Tahitian garments, two breastplates, and various other items. This offering formed part of a ceremonial rite known as Pure toto or Fa'a ari'i te ari'i, which marked the formal investiture of the king as chief of their district. Through prescribed prayers, Pōmare II was symbolically endowed with the name of an ancient chief, thereby legitimizing his authority over Matavai. This investiture was not an isolated event; Pōmare II had conducted similar ceremonies across multiple districts over the preceding years. In Pare (Pirae and Papeete), he was known as Tunuieaiteatua; in Faa'a, as Teari'ivaeatua; in Atehuru (present-day Punaauia and Paea), as Tevahiatua; in Tai'arapu ((the small Peninsula in Tahiti)), as Teri'inavahoroa; and in Eimeo (Mo'orea), as Punuatera'iatua. These names, conferred upon the king during ritual proceedings, signified his investiture with the authority traditionally held by the respective district chiefs. They were invoked on specific ceremonial occasions to affirm his sovereign status across the island's sociopolitical landscape.^[53][52]

A notable secular practice known as Ma'a ai, a form of tribute, was conducted at Pare in 20 June 1806. This ceremonial event involved offerings to the god 'Oro, including food, bark cloth, pigs, and 'ava (a ceremonial beverage), all collected from the various districts across the island. After a designated portion of the offerings was set aside for ritual use, priests aboard canoes were assigned to transport the consecrated food and other items to 'Oro, who was residing at the marae in Tautira. As they proceeded, they sounded the conch shell and periodically called out, "Teie te maʻa ai na 'Oro" ("Here is food for ʻOro to eat"), invoking the belief that the deity would consume the spiritual essence of the offerings. The majority of the items presented were considered the property of the king, who retained the authority to distribute them at his discretion.^[54][47]

In a more macabre gesture of diplomacy, small pieces of human sacrifices were sent to select tribal leaders as tokens of friendship. According to missionary accounts, this practice was received with notable satisfaction. This blend of political strategy and ritual exchange reveals the complex interplay between authority, tradition, and alliance-building in early 19th-century Tahiti.^[55][52]

It was within such a sociocultural context that the Tahitian population and the missionaries lived. The cult of 'Oro, a warrior deity, was also practiced in the Leeward Islands, the original cradle of this emblematic religious figure.^[56]

On 21 June 1806, Pōmare II's first wife, Tetua, died at Matavai, reportedly as a result of an attempted abortion, according to missionary accounts. Her death was interpreted by observers as one among many tragedies stemming from the brutal and immoral customs still prevalent in Tahitian society at the time^[57]. Although Tetua held the title of Queen, she wielded no real political authority. All of her children were allegedly killed by commoners, a fate that underscored her vulnerability despite her royal status. Following her death, her mother Awo, sister of the late Pōmare I, joined Itia, Taipoto (a chief of Moorea), and two other women in observing traditional Tahitian mourning rites. In a gesture of grief and ritual devotion, they cut their heads with shark teeth, a practice emblematic of ancestral mourning customs.^[58][59].

In September 1806, a major political and ceremonial gathering known as a tavau took place in Pare, bringing together representatives from all tribal districts of Tahiti. Over the course of ten days, participants exchanged food, gifts, and tribute with Pōmare II, while preparing for a solemn ritual to be held later in Tautira. According to missionary accounts, this upcoming ceremony was described as a pure ari'i, meaning a form of worship dedicated specifically to the king.^[60] It was to involve five human sacrifices, each contributed by a different district: Mo'orea, Teaharoa (Papenoo to Hitia'a), Teva (Papara to Papeari), Atehuru (Puna'auia and Paea), Ta'iarapu (the small Peninsula in Tahiti). Notably, Porionu'u (Papeete to Arue) was excluded from this levy, likely because it was Pōmare II's own tribal group. This distribution of sacrificial responsibility offers a striking glimpse into the political geography of the time, reflecting both Pōmare’s influence and the complex web of alliances and obligations among the island’s clans. During the same gathering, there was a call to reserve a substantial area of land solely in Tai'arapu for the worship and service of the god 'Oro.^[61][62]

On 1 March 1806, the Hawkesbury arrived from Port Jackson, chartered by Samuel Marsden. Its arrival marked a turning point for the missionaries in Tahiti, who received their first letters from the directors of the London Missionary Society and from their families since their initial landing. By this time, the Tahitian-English dictionary had grown to approximately 2,000 entries, primarily compiled by Henry Nott and John Davies. Their linguistic work laid the foundation for future translation efforts, scriptural dissemination, and cross-cultural dialogue throughout the Society Islands. In October 1806, the opening of an evening school enabled Davies to transcribe a small syllabary, which was sent to London on 3 May 1807. Printed in 1812, it became the first book ever published in an Oceanic language, a landmark achievement in the literary and cultural history of the Pacific.^[63]

In early 1807, King Pōmare II authored his first documented letter, representing a consequential moment in his engagement with literacy and the ideological influence of Christian missionaries. The arrival of missionary-surgeon Gregory Warner in May 1807 further reinforced this growing intersection between indigenous leadership and European religious expansion. In June of the same year, Pōmare II initiated a sudden and forceful campaign against the districts of Atehuru (Puna'auia and Paea) and Papara. The offensive resulted in the death of Taʻatariʻi, heir to the late chief Rua, and precipitated the flight of Tati, brother of the distinguished warrior Opuhara, into the mountainous interior^[64][65].

On 25 September 1807, John Jefferson died following a period of illness. In the wake of his death, fellow missionaries Henry Nott and James Hayward undertook an evangelical mission across the islands of Huahine, Ra'iātea, and Borabora. They traversed each island systematically, engaging in preaching and instruction, thereby introducing the foundational tenets of Christianity to the local populations for the first time. Their efforts were met with attentiveness and apparent receptivity from many islanders. During this period, the illness of King Pōmare II temporarily suspended his military campaign against the inhabitants of Atehuru. This interruption created a window of relative peace, permitting the missionaries to continue their religious work in Tahiti without interference from hostilities.^[65]

Following the arrival of James Elder and his wife Mary aboard the Perseverance on 25 October 1808, political tensions in Tahiti intensified markedly.^[64] On 6 November, a coalition of eastern coastal tribes, led by chiefs Hitoti and Paofai, launched a decisive insurrection against King Pōmare II. The confrontation culminated in the "Battle of Tire" at Papeno'o, resulting in the king’s defeat and widespread devastation across the districts of Pare (Papeete and Pirae) and Matavai (Arue).^{[66][67][68][69][64][70]}

On 11 November 1808, the English missionaries under the leadership of John Davies arrived on the island of Huahine aboard the "Perseverance," seeking refuge. Upon their arrival, they were welcomed by Ari'ipaea and Itia, as well as by Puru, Ariipaea's brother.^[71][72] On 22 December of that year, following another defeat of Pōmare II by rebel forces, Hayward and the other missionaries sought refuge on the island of Mo'orea. Pōmare II joined them several weeks later, marking a period of strategic retreat and regrouping during a time of considerable political instability.^[73][74][75]

On 26 October 1809, the English missionaries departed Huahine aboard the Hibernia in command of Captain William Campbell bound for Port Jackson via the Fiji Islands. James Hayward remained in Huahine, while Henry Nott stayed with Pomare II in Mo'orea.^{[76][77][78][79]} The elderly William Caw, who had long severed ties with the missionary station, also chose to remain in the islands.^[80][81] After a long and dangerous passage of about sixteen weeks via the Fiji Islands, the missionaries and their families arrived at Sydney Cove on 17 February 1810.^[82][83][84]

In 1810, the principal chiefs of the Leeward Islands pledged their support to Pōmare II in his campaign to reassert control over Tahiti. The arrival of nearly 750 warriors from these islands substantially strengthened Pōmare II's forces and contributed to the restoration of stability across the island^[85].^[86] Amid this political and military resurgence, Hayward returned to Mo'orea to reunite with Henry Nott, reflecting the continued coordination and resilience among the London Missionary Society personnel during a period of considerable upheaval.

The restoration of peace allowed English missionaries to resume their efforts to Christianize the Society Islands. A mission that had seen limited success since its inception in 1797. As conditions in Tahiti improved, additional missionaries departed from New South Wales for Moorea during the autumn of 1811.^[87] In October, Henry Bicknell, William Scott, and their wives, Sarah Christie and George Bicknell (Henry's nephew) arrived aboard the schooner Endeavour after their departure from New south wale in 23 July 1811.^{[88][89][90][91]} William Henry followed in December, traveling aboard the Mercury.^[92][93]

On 18 January 1812, James Hayward married Sarah Christie, whose death occurred in Eimeo on 4 October 1812.^[3][94][95]

During an interview with the missionaries on 18 July 1812, Pomare II declared his intention to convert to Christianity and requested baptism. The missionaries explained that candidates for baptism were expected to undergo prior catechetical instruction and demonstrate, through their conduct, a sincere renunciation of wicked practices and a commitment to God and Christ. At the time, Pomare was known to have a fondness for strong spirits. On 25 September 1812, he addressed a letter to the missionaries on Moorea, affirming his resolve to abandon false gods and relinquish traditional rites intended to ward off evil spirits.^{[44][96][97][98][99]}

Between 1813 and 1816, the Society Islands experienced a sweeping religious and cultural transformation as Christianity spread rapidly through Tahiti, Mo'orea, and the Leeward Islands. Sparked by the devotion of King Pomare II and the bold faith of two young converts, Oito and Tuahine, who formed the Pure Atua group in Fautaua Valley, the movement gained momentum with missionary support.^[100][101] The first chapel and school opened in Papetoai in 1813, followed by powerful symbolic acts like the public idol-burning by high priest Patii and the death of anti-Christian chief Opuhara during the Battle of Fe’i Pi in 1815.^{[102][103][104]} In the Leeward Islands, the spread of Christianity was marked by decisive leadership and fervent religious reform. Chiefs such as Tamatoa III orchestrated mass conversions, while figures like Tefaʻaora I and Maʻi III actively dismantled traditional religious structures associated with idolatry. Although periods of unrest persisted, most notably the conflict in Ra'iātea led by Fenuapeho, Christian ethics played a pivotal role in mediating reconciliation. Fenuapeho’s subsequent appointment as executive chief of Taha'a exemplifies the interplay between spiritual allegiance and political consolidation in the wake of missionary influence^[105].^[106]

Due to declining health, James Hayward left Moorea in December, 1818 aboard the Haweis, the first brig constructed by English missionaries in Moorea.^[107] The vessel was commanded by Captain John Nicholson. After a 47-day voyage from Raiatea, including a stop at the Bay of Islands in New Zealand, the brig arrived at Port Jackson on 23 January 1819, carrying a cargo of pork and coconut oil.^{[108][109][110]} After spending nearly ten months in the colony, Hayward returned to England on 27 November 1819.^[3]

In 6 March 1820, James Hayward married Mary Ann Whilshire in the United Kingdom. The couple sailed from Portsmouth to Sydney, aboard the brig Hope, arriving on 23 October 1820.^[111] Hayward returned to the South Seas on 10 March 1821, once again aboard the Hope, accompanied by Charles Wilson, his new wife, and his two sons.^[112] They arrived in Tahiti on 28 April 1821.

Due to Mary Hayward’s declining health, the couple retired to New South Wales on 13 December 1822, ending James Hayward’s formal association with the London Missionary Society. He remained active in religious and civic life, serving as a trustee of the Independent Chapel of New South Wales and participating in land grants and religious publishing.^[113] Hayward and his wife Mary were known to have received an annuity and maintained ties to the Bible and Tract Depository on King Street, Sydney. They were involved in a legal dispute over property and annuity payments, reflecting challenges faced by early settlers navigating colonial land laws.^{[114][115][116]}

James Hayward died on 5 November 1850, in Sydney, remembered for his unwavering dedication to Christian faith and missionary service in the Pacific.^[117][118] He was also recognized as the only other Duff missionary to remain in the Society Islands alongside Henry Nott after the others retreated to New South Wales.^[119]

His wife Mary formerly died on 18 March 1854.^[120]