History of Srivijaya

Srivijaya is a thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (nowadays part of Indonesia), which it influenced as much of the Southeast Asian lands. Records about the Srivijaya kingdom, including the traces and records that were evidently about Srivijaya were mostly from Chinese chronicles. The Chinese chronicles are preferably referred as "Shih-li-fo-shih" or "Sanfoqi".^[1] In ancient times, Srivijaya was known to be the forgotten kingdom because most people weren't aware of the existence of the Srivijaya kingdom. When French historian George Cœdès published his groundbreaking article on the "Kingdom of Srivijaya" in 1918, he managed to bring this forgotten kingdom to global attention. Yijing accounts were important in describing Srivijaya, when at the time, he entered the kingdom of Srivijaya in 671 for only about 7 months.^[2]

Srivijaya held their achievements as being one of the most important centres of the Buddhist expansion throughout Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 11th century. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of the western maritimes in Southeast Asia. Due to its strategic location, Srivijaya developed complex technologies for the necessary utilization of maritime resources.^[3]

The Srivijaya Kingdom was founded by the Maharaja, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, which later came to be known as the founder and the first king of the Srivijaya kingdom. He would then eventually start the Srivijaya and the commence, which began around in the 7th century. At the time when Cholas broke off cordial relations between themselves and Srivijaya, an intervening war and a series of raids brought about the eventual collapse of Srivijaya. At times, Srivijaya was forcibly involved in wars with rivals such as the Cholas, or any other of the minor rivals that were a foes to Srivijaya. Srivijaya and its absence would remain as an forgotten kingdom following the disappearance.

From that time on, the Srivijaya era began in the early period, accordingly from other sources corroborating its existence around the 7th century until around the 12th and 13th century, where the conclusion of Srivijaya's history emerged. The oldest well-known surviving inscriptions was the Kedukan Bukit inscription.^[4] The Kedukan Bukit inscription was discovered by the Dutchman C.J. Batenburg during the Dutch-ruling colonial of Indonesia.^[5] That inscription dates back to around the 7th century. Srivijaya, known of its thalassocratic empire, was established by the Maharahaja (Great King) Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. His name was mentioned in the earliest known inscriptions, the Siddhayatra inscription, detailing his sacred journey to obtain blessings, and moreover of his earlier expansions throughout neighboring areas, particularly around the time of the establishment of Srivijaya. The inscription was founded by the Dutchman C.J. Batenburg, who specifically discovered it near Palembang, Sumatra. Regardless, the stone of the Kedukan Bukit inscription contains most of the existing evidence about Srivijaya's interpretations.

Between the 7th century to the early 11th century, Srivijaya rose and later became a hegemon in Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was in control of the whole Malay world, until the Chola invasion under the reign of Rajendra began after the Srivijans controlling most of the lands around prior Chola invasion, in the year c. 1000. Prior to Chola incursions, the emperor or leader of Chola, Emperor Raja Raja I of Chola, had initially established relations with Srivijaya at that time, which were quite cordial.^[6]

Major incursions like the Srivijayan conquest of Kedah, and during the war however, the king of Kedah had decided to surrender, and many of his forces had faced heavy casualties.^[7] The events of conquest by Srivijaya was crucial for the significant period for interaction and cultural exchange, and after successfully reach to Malay world – Srivijaya became a power of trades, later mastering their trade routes throughout international seas, which are Malacca Straits and the Sunda Straits.^[8][9] Srivijaya invasions to south Myanmar, Malay Peninsula and Kra Isthmus, Srivijaya had became famous, having their influences reach far as it is.^[8]

Local written records have found or unearthed in Kedah, stated that the Ancient Kedah socio-politics has not been structured at all.^[10] The Srivijayan socio-politics were structed, as of a ruler himself established a palace in Sumatra called kraton, surrounded by the chiefs or known as the "datus", who assisted in their administration of the kingdom as well as they carrying out the diplomacy functions.^[11] Archaeological findings from the Kedah and the Indian records finds that the Ancient Kedah was regularly visited by many of the traders, and its port functions as an entrepot. Trough the Srivijaya socio-politics, the socio-politics was for structuring the Ancient Kedah, especially the ancient had become mandala of the Srivijayans.^[12] The defeats of the Malay Kingdoms were nevertheless but a great loss to being dissolve. In each centuries starting from the 7th to 9th century, and eventually ends in the early 11th or 13th century. Also, throughout the 7th century or the end of 8th century, the Srivijaya had managed to invade Langkasuka,^[13][14] an ancient Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom. The Srivijayans had later took the Pan Pan and Tambralinga as well, within no time after taking Langkasuka in a Malay Peninsula, which happened in the same century.^[14]

From that time, the Srivijayans expansion had expanded far starting the incursions from Sumatra when the kingdom was originated in Palembang, and then progress to the Malay Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the Srivijaya influences control two major naval choke points (or the key trade routes^[15]), such as Malacca and Sunda straits as well, later turning to be significant trading empire with formidable naval forces.^[16][17][18]

One of proposed causes of the move were strategically politics and power struggle. Srivijaya of Shaleindra against to the Mataram Kingdom, a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. They were partially rivals between the two kingdoms, as of the Mataram were an inland kingdom in Java at that time in Southeast Asia. George Cœdès in his books that the move to East Java was probably response to the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty.^{[19]: 79, 90} The war between them known as Pralaya^[a] (lit. 'Destruction') in one of Javanese inscriptions in Pucangan, dated around firstly in during the reign of king Airlangga of the Kahuripan kingdom as well. To the point of the two rivals kingdom, in 990,^[19]: 130 king of Isyana Kingdom Dharmawangsa launched their naval invasion against to Srivijaya, as of the attempt to capture Palembang on that period. News of the Javanese invasion of Srivijaya also were from the Chinese accounts to imperial Chinese dyansty Song. In 988, an envoy from Javanese were sent to the Chinese court at Guangzhou. Around that time, after sojourned about two years in China, the envoy were learned as of his kingdom was attack by Mataram Kingdom, thus being completely unable to turn back home.

As of the Javanese envoys, the hostility between the two rivals kingdom of Mataram and Srivijaya were confirmed from the Javanese envoys as well. From 992, the envoys from Mataram were sent to the Chinese court also, to explain in that Chinese court that the war that Mataram was involved between the two kingdoms Srivijaya and Mataram wars was a continuous war with Srivijaya.^[20]: 200 From that same year, Mataram forces were succeeded capturing Palembang for a while, until which Srivijaya detain the attacks and captures from Mataram forces.^[21]

From 1016, Srivijaya had launched their retaliation attacks and demolishing Wwatan Palace in Java, primarily by assisting the lesser king of Mataram and the vassal polity, Wwurari of Lwaram, a somewhat figure in the Javanese history, began to revolt and attacked the palace of Mataram, then later being destroyed eventually. For such reasons why in the first place that Wwurari start to rebelled the Mataram palace is that him Wwurari wanted to marry the daughter of Dharmawangsa. Him also wants to replace the king Dharmawangsa and him being as the leader or a ruler to Mataram Kingdom. However, it was later rejected of his proposal, and that Dharmawangsa chose the Airlangga, son of Udayana Warmadewa of Bali and Mahendradatta^[19]: 129 as his son-in-law. Wwurari was vengeful, and later allied with Srivijaya to aid and attack the Mataram palace.^[22] The sudden and unexpected attack took place during the wedding ceremony of Dharmawangsa daughter, which left the court unprepared and shocked, eventually the allies between two Wwurari and the Srivijayans attack and killed Dharmawangsa and most of his royal family also.^[19]: 130

From that time, Srivijaya Kingdom ruling had existed about 600 years. When the first empire Srivijaya had sent a tributary to Song Dynasty, a Chinese dynasty existed from around 960 to 1279, around the year of 670 M to 1380-an M, when it began deteriorating around 1380, Song Dynasty had later changed their policy trades for to focus one of the entities, just to continue the trades with the other countries.^[23] The Song Dynasty had slightly involved in the collapse of Melayu kingdoms from the earlier times around the Srivijayan expansions, trough Sumatra and then to Malay Peninsula.

While the results of the disestablishment of Jambi and others of the Malay kingdoms, which got ceded and annexed by Srivijaya – the prolonged war of Chinese dynasties between the Yuan Dynasty (supported by the Mongol Empire) and Song Dynasty were one crucial events that has happened in the Chinese history, because Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, defeated the Chinese Southern Song in 1279, and for the first time all of China was under foreign rule,^[24] putting Song Dynasty in disestablishment and the establishment of Yuan Dynasty, from the year around in 1279, during the Mongol invasion of Song. The consideration of the Mongol invasion throughout East Asia, it was one of the last great achievements accomplished by the Mongol Empire,^[25] and upon its completion, the Mongols rule all over continental of East Asia, under the Han-style Yuan dynasty, which that had been found as of the division of the Mongol Empire. It also marks the end of the relationship between the Srivijaya Kingdom within the Song Dynasty in 1279.^{[note 1]}

Over centuries, the Chinese fleets, which are only directing for the route up, until when the Colonial Era arrives – the last Chinese dynasties, known as Qing Dynasty, had been collapsed^[26] by the Eight-Nation Alliance, after the outcome of the Boxer Rebellion in 7 September 1901. From that same year, the Boxer Protocol was later created after the results of the Boxer Rebellion, between the great powers and Qing dynasty parties and is signatories as well.

In 1006 CE, a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty – King Maravijayattungavarman – built the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam,^[27] located in the modern-day Indian state of Tamil Nadu. However, the Chola Emperor under the reign of Rajendra I – the relations deteriorated as of the Chola start the attacks on Srivijayan cities.^[28]

Chola had made a plan to begin their invasion throughout Southeast Asia. When the Chola invasion begins, aimlessly at Southeast Asia – when the war ended with Chola victory, significantly weakening the Srivijaya Kingdom, breaking the Srivijaya maritime monopoly on that region.^{[29][30][31][32]} Upon that time, several places in the present-day Indonesia were invaded by the Cholas.^[33][34] When places were been raid by the king of Chola, it led to the fall of Sailendra Kingdom of Srivijaya – but also at the same time during Chola invasion, when the return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa took place from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.^[35]

As of it, the Chola invasion primarily disrupted or disintegrated the kingdom in 1025 CE, which following of the major several raids that were launched by those Cholas upon at their ports.^[36]: 110 Chinese sources continually refer to the polities that name as Sanfoqi that were taught by the Srivijaya for a few centuries, but imperceptible that some historian argued that whether the Srivijaya would no longer be the appropriate name for the overlord centre after the year of 1025, when Sanfoqi were referring to Jambi.^[2] After the Srivijaya fall, the kingdom were largely forgotten after is fall. But, an French historian named George Cœdès in 1918, far from East of the French school, had formally postulate the kingdom existence.^[37]

With the death of Chandrabhanu (or Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja), a figure who held as both the king to Tambralinga and Jaffna, known as Javaka who his reign during the period between 1230 until it ends on 1262. With his death, according to the Siam Society historical sources, the Srivijaya Kingdom, stated as being such a highfalutin name, came to the end of the kingdom also. The histories between the two lands of Malay Peninsula and Sumatra will subsequently to took a separated courses. Subsequently, the city-states had send an embassies to the Chinese court, which the Chinese is still being recorded coming from Sanfotsi; but, a complete control of the straits of Maura Takus (Malayu) and the central of Sumatra and Kedah on the west coast of the Peninsula, until it was left no more for the two of them.^[38]

Majapahit were rising after the fall of the Srivijaya Kingdom. The empire rose began struggling as of the Mongol invasion led attack on Southeast Asian or Malay world on Java particularly. The kingdom Majapahit was founded by the Javanese emperor and the founder of Majapahit Raden Wijaya, which him in earlier times during war had participated it, and later the aftermath, he became victorious after the war following the fail invasion of the Mongol upon Java. The war, Mongol invasion of Java was plan by the dynasty of China Yuan and a Mongol-led Imperial dynasty also, under the reign of the Yuan emperor Kublai Khan had attempted to invade Java, with an army about 20,000^[39] to 30,000 soldiers.^[40]

Was intended as of a punitive expedition that were launched against the king of Singhasari Kertanegara, who him had refused to pay the tributes to Yuan to primarily maimed one of the emissaries. In the intervening years between Kertanagara refusal and the expedition arrival on Java, Kertanagara was killed and Singhasari had been usurped by Kediri.

A fierce campaign between the Mongols and their Mongol-led imperial Yuan against the others include Majapahit, Kediri however during the war surrendered. Yuan forces were betrayed by the erstwhile allies Majapahit, under Raden Wijaya. The repercussion of Mongol invasion to Java, the invasion ended with a Yuan failure and strategic victory to Majapahit.

• Mohd Nasir, Muhammad Nu'man; Ramli, Zuliskandar (September 2022). "ANCIENT KEDAH: A SRIVIJAYAN MANDALA IN THE MALAY PENINSULA" (PDF). Journal Archeology Malaysia. 35 (2). Malaysian Association of Archaeologists: 77–87. Retrieved 4 June 2025.
• Chattopadhyaya, Alaka (1 May 1999). Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana in Relation to the History and Religion of Tibet with Tibetan Sources. Motilal Banarsidass, India. p. 624. ISBN 9788120809284. Retrieved 4 June 2025.
• Chiraya Rajani, M.C. Chand. "Background to the Sri Vijaya Story Part V (Conclusion)" (PDF). The Siam Society. Chiangmai University. Retrieved 15 June 2025.
• Bade, David W. (2013), Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies