Isfahan

"Espahan" redirects here. For the village in Razavi Khorasan Province, see Espahan, Razavi Khorasan.
This article is about the city of Isfahan. For other uses, see Isfahan (disambiguation).

Isfahan
اصفهان (Persian)
Sepahan, Espadana
City
View of the city and Naqsh-e Jahan Square
Official seal of Isfahan
Seal
Coat of arms of Isfahan
Coat of arms
Official logo of Isfahan
Flag
Nickname(s): 
Half of the World
(نصف جهان, Nesfe Jahân)
Isfahan
Isfahan
Isfahan is located in Iran
Isfahan
Isfahan
Location in Iran
Isfahan is located in West and Central Asia
Isfahan
Isfahan
Isfahan (West and Central Asia)
Coordinates: 32°39′55″N 51°40′13″E / 32.66528°N 51.67028°E / 32.66528; 51.67028[1]
CountryIran
Province Isfahan
CountyIsfahan
DistrictCentral
Government
 • MayorAli Ghasemzadeh
 • City CouncilMohammad Nour Salehi (Chairman)
Area
[2]
 • Urban
551 km2 (213 sq mi)
Elevation
1,574 m (5,217 ft)
Population
 (2022 Census)
 • Density4,000/km2 (10,400/sq mi)
 • Urban
2,219,343
 • Metro
3,989,070[3]
 • Population Rank in Iran
3rd
Time zoneUTC+3:30 (IRST)
Area code031
ClimateBWk[4]
Websiteisfahan.ir
Isfahan city
City
Places

Isfahan or Esfahan (Persian: اصفهان [esfæˈhɒːn] ⓘ)[a] is a city in the Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district.[5] It is located 440 kilometres (270 miles) south of Tehran.[6] The city has a population of approximately 2,220,000, making it the third-most populous city in Iran, after Tehran and Mashhad, and the second-largest metropolitan area.[7]

Isfahan is located at the intersection of the two principal routes that traverse Iran, north–south and east–west. Isfahan flourished between the 9th and 18th centuries. Under the Safavid Empire, Isfahan became the capital of Iran, for the second time in its history, under Abbas the Great. It is known for its Persian–Muslim architecture, grand boulevards, covered bridges, palaces, tiled mosques, and minarets. Isfahan also has many historical buildings, monuments, paintings, and artifacts. The fame of Isfahan led to the Persian proverb Esfahān nesf-e-jahān ast (Isfahan is half (of) the world).[8] Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan is one of the largest city squares in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[9]

Etymology

The name Espahan is derived from Middle Persian Spahān, which is attested by various Middle Persian seals and inscriptions, including that of the Zoroastrian magi Kartir.[10]

The region is denoted by the abbreviation GD (Southern Media) on Sasanian coins. In Ptolemy's Geographia, it appears as Aspadana (Ἀσπαδανα), which translates to "place of gathering for the army". It is believed that Spahān is derived from spādānām "the armies", the Old Persian plural of spāda, from which is derived spāh (𐭮𐭯𐭠𐭧) 'army' and spahi (سپاهی, 'soldier', literally 'of the army') in Central Persian. Some of the other ancient names include Gey, Jey (old form Zi),[11] Park, and Judea.[12][13]

History

See also: Timeline of Isfahan

Human habitation in the Isfahan region can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists have found artifacts dating back to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages. During the Median rule, Isfahan became a regional centre, especially from the benefits of the Zayandehrud River. It was a religiously and ethnically diverse city during the reign of Cyrus the Great, and exhibited religious tolerance.

The Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE. They made it the capital of al-Jibal province. The city further grew under the Buyid dynasty, and under the Seljuk dynasty. With the fall of the Seljuks in 1200 CE, the city temporarily declined but regained its importance during the Safavid era (1501–1736) with the city's golden age under the rule of Abbas the Great who also moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. During his reign, Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Later, the city also had enclaves for people of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent. The city once again declined after the Siege of Isfahan by Afghan invaders in 1722.

In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran, especially during the population migrations at the start of the century and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War.

Zoroastrian era

An ancient artifact from Isfahan City Center museum

Under Median rule, the commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, growing into a regional centre that benefited from the fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River, in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana.

When Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. It was Cyrus who, having just taken Babylon, made an edict in 538 BCE declaring that Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem.[14] Later, some of the Jewish immigrants settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote:

When the Jews emigrated from Jerusalem, fleeing from Nebuchadnezzar, they carried with them a sample of the water and soil of Jerusalem. They did not settle until they reached the city of Isfahan, whose soil and water was deemed to resemble that of Jerusalem. Thereupon they settled there, cultivated the soil, raised children and grandchildren, and today the name of this settlement is Yahudia.[15]

The Parthians (247 BCE – 224 CE), continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering a Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.

Isfahan at the end of the 6th century (top), consisting of two separate areas: Sassanid Jay and Jewish Yahudia. In the 11th century (bottom), these two areas were completely merged.

The next empire to rule, the Sassanids (224–651 CE), presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reforms and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who descended from seven noble Iranian families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban-planning projects. While Isfahan's political importance declined during this period, many Sassanid princes would study statecraft in the city, and its military role increased. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, which would be ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The words "Aspahan" and "Spahan" are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'.[16]

Although many theories have mentioned the origins of Isfahan, little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty. The historical facts suggest that, in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht, the Jewish wife of emperor Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420), who was also the mother of his successor Bahram V, settled a colony of Jewish immigrants in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya and Jouybareh), a settlement 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Gabae (its Achaemid and Parthian name; Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic 'Jay') that was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River (the colony's establishment was also attributed to Nebuchadrezzar, though that's less likely).[17] The gradual population decrease of Gay (Jay) and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs, after the Arab conquest of Iran, resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The words "Aspadana", "Ispadana", "Spahan", and "Sepahan", all from which the word Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located.

Isfahan and Gay were supposedly both circular in design, which was characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities.[18] However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan has not yet been uncovered.[19]

Muslim era

For broader coverage of this topic, see Defensive walls in Safavid Iran, Habsburg–Persian alliance, and Franco-Persian alliance.

When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE, they made it the capital of al-Jibal ("the Mountains") province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid (Buwayhid) dynasty, which rose to power and ruled much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid leaders waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the tenth century.[20][21][22] The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; but it was under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92) that the city grew in size and splendour.[23]

After the fall of the Seljuqs (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities, such as Tabriz and Qazvin. During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part."[24]

In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents, his soldiers killing a reported 70,000 citizens. An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.[25]

Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid period (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Abbas the Great (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the 17th-century world. In 1598, he moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies increasing Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade.[26] Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity.[27] Their contributions to the economic vitality of the revitalized city supported the recovery of Safavid glory and prestige, after earlier losses to the Ottomans and Qizilbash tribes,[27] ushering in a golden age for the city.

As part of Abbas's forced resettlement of peoples from within his empire, as many as 300,000 Armenians (primarily from Jugha) were resettled in Isfahan during Abbas' reign.[28][29])[29] In Isfahan, he ordered the establishment of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa (today one of the largest Armenian quarters in the world).[28][29]

Shah Abbas would also oversee a transformation of the urban pattern of Isfahan. The plans included the new, rectangular Shah Square and the linear Chahar Bagh Boulevard. Between these two focal points of Isfahan's urban revitalization was a large garden, what is today the Hasht Behesht Gardens. The new, geometric, planned portions of Isfahan would stand out against the old city's complex street layouts, attracting foreign emissaries and wealthy residents along the Chahar Bagh.[30] Shah Square would be adorned by 4 grand monuments on each side. Importantly to the north, a turquoise gate connected the new square to Isfahan's Grand Bazaar and old square, while to the south, the Shah Mosque would become the new primary place of worship for city residents.[31]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the Caucasus settled in the city. Following an agreement between Abbas the Great and his Georgian subject Teimuraz I of Kakheti ("Tahmuras Khan"), whereby the latter became Muslim and accepted Safavid rule in exchange for being allowed to rule as the region's wāli (governor), with his son serving as dāruḡa (prefect) of Isfahan.[32] He was accompanied by a troop of soldiers,[32] some of whom were Georgian Orthodox Christians.[32] The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military servants), as well as Georgian women.[32] Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian.[32] Now the city had enclaves of those of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent.[32] Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Iran in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.[32][33]

During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became known in Europe, and European travellers, such as Jean Chardin, gave accounts of their visits to the city. The city was sacked by Afghan invaders in 1722, during a marked decline in Safavid influence. Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in moving the capital to Mashhad and Shiraz during the Afsharid and Zand periods, respectively, until it was finally moved to Tehran, in 1775, by Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty.

In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan, during the reign of Fath Ali Shah.[34]

Modern age

  • Street from above
    Street from above
  • Isfahan in 1924
    Isfahan in 1924
  • Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill
    Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill
  • Map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste
    Map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste

During World War II, Polish refugees, mostly children, were admitted in Isfahan (see also Iran–Poland relations).[35] There were 21 Polish childcare units, located in different parts of the city.[35] Some 2,600 Poles were housed there as of February 1943.[35] Over time, Polish children were evacuated further to Africa, India and New Zealand.[35]

The city has had four master development programs. The first one was created in 1971 by German engineering firm that included checkered streets' design.[36][37] In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran. Many of these migrants came during the population migrations at the start of the century and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 from Isfahan were killed; and there were 43,000 veterans.[38] In 1921, a telephone office were first created on Shams Abadi street.[39]

Today, Isfahan produces carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods, including sweets. Isfahan is noted for its production of the Isfahan rug, a type of Persian rug typically made of merino wool and silk.

There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as uranium conversion facilities (UCF) for producing nuclear fuel in the environs of the city.[40] Isfahan has one of the largest steel-producing facilities in the region, as well as facilities for producing special alloys. The Mobarakeh Steel Company is the biggest steel producer in the Middle East and Northern Africa, and it is the biggest DRI producer in the world.[41] The Isfahan Steel Company was the first manufacturer of constructional steel products in Iran, and it remains the largest such company today.[42]

There is a major oil refinery and a large air force base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city.[43] Isfahan was also attracting international investment as of 2014.[44] Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007.

In 2023, 200 Azan playing loudspeakers were installed in the city by the government.[45] The Municipality created a tourism app called Isfahanema.[46]

Farmers in Esfahan have been protesting for their water rights due to ongoing water shortages and mismanagement issues. In 2018 they protested Iranian regime mismanagement and its anti-American ideology, chanting "Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America," and "Front toward homeland back to enemy in Friday prayers".[47][48]

Geography

Main articles: Ecology in Isfahan and Regions of Iran
Distribution of drought, normal, and wet years – 1972 to 2009, Isfahan atlas

The city is located on the plain of the Zayandeh Rud (Fertile River) and the foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The nearest mountain is Mount Soffeh (Kuh-e Soffeh), just south of the city.

As of 2023 several public housing projects were being built.[49]

Hydrography

An artificial network of canals, whose components are called madi, were built during the Safavid dynasty for channeling water from Zayandeh Roud river into different parts of the city. Designed by Sheikh Bahaï, an engineer of Shah Abbas, the network has 77 madis in the northern course, and 71 in the southern course of the Zayandeh Rud. As of 1993, 91% of the centuries-old network's water was being used for agriculture purposes, 4% for industrial purposes, and 5% for domestic purposes.[50] 70 emergency wells were dug in 2018 to avoid water shortages.[51][52]

Ecological issues

The dry Zayanderud river with Si-o-se-pol in the background
The dry Zayanderud river with Si-o-se-pol in the background in 2018

Towns and villages around Isfahan have emptied out due to drought and water diversion.[53][54] An anonymous journalist said that what's called drought is more often the mismanagement of water.[55][56][57] The subsidence rate is dire, and the aquifer level decreases by one meter annually.[58]

As of 2020, the city had the worst air quality among major Iranian cities.[59][60][61]

Flora and fauna

Rosa 'Ispahan'

The Damask rose cultivar Rosa 'Ispahan' is named after the city. The mole cricket is one of the major pests of plants, especially grass roots.[62][63] By 2023, the city's green space was dying because of a water shortage; where trees need 150 liters, only 0.7 liter of gray recycled water was available.[64] There is a program to plant Celtis australis, oak trees.[65]

Cows endemic to Isfahan became extinct in 2020.[66] Wagtails are often seen in farmlands and parks.[67] Sheep and rams are symbols of Isfahan.[68]

Climate

Situated at 1,590 metres (5,217 ft) above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has a cold desert climate (Köppen BWk). No geological obstacles exist within 90 kilometres (56 miles) north of the city, allowing cool winds to blow from this direction. Despite its altitude, Isfahan remains hot during the summer, with maxima typically around 35 °C (95 °F). However, with low humidity and moderate temperatures at night, the climate is quite pleasant. During the winter, days are cool while nights can be very cold. Snow falls an average of 6.7 days each winter.[69] However, generally Isfahan's climate is extremely dry. Its annual precipitation of 125 millimetres (4.9 in) is only about half that of Tehran or Mashhad and only a quarter that of more exposed Kermanshah.

The Zayande River starts in the Zagros Mountains, flowing from the west through the heart of the city, then dissipates in the Gavkhouni wetland. Planting olive trees in the city is economically viable because such trees can survive water shortages.[70]

The highest recorded temperature was 43 °C (109 °F) on 11 July 2001 and the lowest recorded temperature was −19.4 °C (−3 °F) on 16 January 1996.

Climate data for Isfahan (1991–2020, records 1951-present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 20.8
(69.4) 		25.0
(77.0) 		30.0
(86.0) 		35.3
(95.5) 		38.5
(101.3) 		42.1
(107.8) 		44.6
(112.3) 		43.8
(110.8) 		39.2
(102.6) 		34.0
(93.2) 		27.5
(81.5) 		23.4
(74.1) 		44.6
(112.3)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 10.0
(50.0) 		13.6
(56.5) 		18.0
(64.4) 		23.4
(74.1) 		29.2
(84.6) 		35.2
(95.4) 		37.6
(99.7) 		36.2
(97.2) 		32.4
(90.3) 		25.8
(78.4) 		17.1
(62.8) 		11.7
(53.1) 		24.2
(75.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.4
(38.1) 		6.8
(44.2) 		11.4
(52.5) 		16.8
(62.2) 		22.3
(72.1) 		27.9
(82.2) 		30.3
(86.5) 		28.5
(83.3) 		24.4
(75.9) 		17.9
(64.2) 		9.9
(49.8) 		4.9
(40.8) 		17.0
(62.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −2.8
(27.0) 		−0.1
(31.8) 		4.6
(40.3) 		9.7
(49.5) 		14.5
(58.1) 		19.2
(66.6) 		21.7
(71.1) 		19.5
(67.1) 		15.3
(59.5) 		9.6
(49.3) 		3.1
(37.6) 		−1.1
(30.0) 		9.4
(49.0)
Record low °C (°F) −19.4
(−2.9) 		−12.2
(10.0) 		−8.3
(17.1) 		−4.0
(24.8) 		4.5
(40.1) 		10.0
(50.0) 		13.0
(55.4) 		11.0
(51.8) 		5.0
(41.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		−8.0
(17.6) 		−13.0
(8.6) 		−19.4
(−2.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 20.2
(0.80) 		15.9
(0.63) 		27.1
(1.07) 		20.8
(0.82) 		9.4
(0.37) 		1.7
(0.07) 		0.7
(0.03) 		0.3
(0.01) 		0.1
(0.00) 		3.2
(0.13) 		18.2
(0.72) 		18.2
(0.72) 		135.8
(5.37)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 7.7
(3.0) 		0.3
(0.1) 		0.1
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.1
(0.0) 		2.4
(0.9) 		10.6
(4)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 3.6 2.7 3.8 3.6 1.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.7 2.6 3.2 22.3
Average snowy days 2.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 3.4
Average relative humidity (%) 56 43 37 35 29 19 19 20 22 33 48 59 35
Average dew point °C (°F) −5.8
(21.6) 		−6.3
(20.7) 		−4.9
(23.2) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		1.3
(34.3) 		0.8
(33.4) 		3.1
(37.6) 		2.5
(36.5) 		0.1
(32.2) 		−0.3
(31.5) 		−1.8
(28.8) 		−3.5
(25.7) 		−1.3
(29.7)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 210 228 255 262 317 358 356 358 322 286 217 199 3,368
Source 1: NOAA NCEI,[71] (snowfall 1981-2010)[72]
Source 2: Iran Meteorological Organization (records)[73]

Economy

Textiles

Traditionally the cornerstone of Isfahan's economy, the textile industry employed 18,000–20,000 workers in some 25 cotton- and wool-weaving mills by the mid-1960s—roughly half of Iran's total textile output at the time, and far ahead of other provincial centres such as Yazd and Kerman.[74] Although many natural-fibre mills later contracted, the city reinvented itself as the nation's leading producer of synthetic yarns: Polyacryl Iran Corporation, launched with DuPont technology in the late 1970s, operated five plants that by the late 1990s were turning out 70,000 metric tonnes of polyester and acrylic staple, yarn and tops—nearly 80 percent of all manmade fibre made in Iran.[74]

Steel and metalworking

The original Āryāmehr (Esfahan) Steel Mill southwest of the city and the newer Mobarakeh Steel Complex together form the country's largest integrated metals hub, supplying billets, bars, sheets and structural profiles to downstream pipe, appliance, and machinery plants across the province and beyond.[74] Their presence has anchored a supporting network of mining, transport and engineering firms and stimulated the growth of planned satellite towns.[74]

Agro-food and consumer goods

Modern vegetable-oil refineries, two large sugar-beet factories, and numerous plants producing flour, dairy products, meat, fruit juices and canned foods give Isfahan a national role in food processing.[74] Small and medium-sized enterprises continue to package dried fruits for export, while soft-drink bottling, leather goods, and assorted consumer products round out a diversified industrial landscape.[74]

Chemicals and construction materials

The province's chemical base spans fertilisers, explosives, petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. Cement, tiles, bricks, building stone and concrete remain pillars of the construction-materials sector, serving both domestic mega-projects and export markets.[74]

Energy

Main article: Nuclear facilities in Iran

The nuclear facilities located in and near Isfahan include the Isfahan Nuclear Technology Center (INTC), the Isfahan Uranium Conversion Facility (UCF), the Isfahan Fuel Manufacturing Plant (FMP), the Isfahan Fuel Element Cladding Plant, the Isfahan Nuclear Fuel Research and Production Center (NFRPC), and the Isfahan Nuclear Waste Storage Facility,[75] and in July 2022, Iran announced plans to build a new nuclear research reactor at the Isfahan site.[76]

Suspected nuclear weapon development

Main article: Isfahan Nuclear Technology/Research Center

Isfahan is suspected of being the primary location for Iran's secret nuclear weapon development program.[75][77] In September 2008, IAEA experts stated that they only had limited access in Isfahan, and that a quantity of uranium sufficient for six nuclear weapons, were removed from Isfahan to undisclosed locations while still at a stage in the enrichment process which was not monitored.[78] In June 2022, the IAEA reported that 90% of Iran's most highly enriched uranium was moved to the facilities in Isfahan, which house the equipment used to convert uranium gas into uranium metal.[76][79]

In June 2025, the USAF attacked nuclear sites that, according to the United States and Israel, were used to develop nuclear weapons.

Military facilities

Main article: List of Iranian Air Force bases

According to some sources, the Polyacryl Iran Corporation, the Linear Alkyl Benzene Complex and the Chemical Industries Group (CIG) in Isfahan serve as installation sites for chemical weapons.[80] Reports from the NCRI asserted that nerve agents produced near Semnan were delivered to a missile plant in Isfahan for integration into ballistic-missile warheads, such as those of the Scud-B.[80]

The Chemical Industries Group, headquartered in the city, is widely described as the backbone of Iran's weapons industry. According to United States intelligence assessments, CIG also manufactures solid-fuel propellant powders for the country's ballistic-missile and artillery-rocket programmes.[80] Within this conglomerate, a modern chemical complex erected by Sweden's Bofors company in the late 1970s as a dual-use fertiliser-and-explosives facility did not begin operations until 1987, due to Iraqi artillery and missile strikes during the Iran-Iraq war.[80]

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force (IRGC AF) has an airbase in the city.[81] The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) has an airbase, the 8th Predator Tactical Fighter Base (TFB.8), which is the home base for Iranian F-14s.[82][83][84][85] The local Sepah Pasdaran is named "Master of the Era" ("Sepah saheb al zaman" in Arabic and Farsi), after the Mahdi. The Amir Al-Momenin University of Military Sciences and Technology is based in the city.

Transportation

Map of Isfahan's operational BRT lines
Map of Isfahan's operational metro lines

Roads and freeways

From 2002 to 2013, Isfahan's internal highway network underwent an expansion. Freeways connect the city to Iran's other major cities, including Tehran, 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north, and Shiraz, 200 kilometres (120 mi) to the south. Highways also service satellite cities surrounding the metropolitan area.[86]

The Isfahan Eastern Bypass Freeway is under construction.

In 2021, a new AVL system was deployed in the city.[87][88][89]

Bridges

The oldest bridge over the Zayanderud is the Shahrestan Bridge, whose foundations were built during the Sasanian Empire (3rd–7th century Sassanid era); it was repaired during the Seljuk period. Further upstream is the Khaju Bridge, which Shah Abbas II built in 1650. It is 123 metres (404 feet) long, with 24 arches; and it also serves as a sluice gate.

Another bridge is the Choobi (Joui) Bridge. Further upstream again is the Si-o-Seh Pol or bridge of 33 arches. It was built during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great by Sheikh Baha'i and connected Isfahan with the Armenian suburb of New Julfa. It is by far the longest bridge in Isfahan at 295 m (967.85 ft). Another notable bridge is the Marnan Bridge.

Ride sharing

Snapp! and Tapsi[90][91] are two of the carpooling apps in the city.[92][93] The city has built 42 bicycle-sharing stations and 150 kilometres (93 mi) of paved bicycle paths.[94][95]

As part of Iran's Islamic religious laws, women are forbidden to use the public bicycle-sharing network, as decreed by the representative of the Supreme Leader in Isfahan, Ayatollah Yousef Tabatabai Nejad, and General Attorney Ali Esfahani.[96]

Mass transit

The Isfahan and Suburbs Bus Company operates transit buses in the city. East-West BRT Bus Rapid Transit Line buses carry up to 120,000 passengers daily.[97]

The municipality signed a memorandum with Khatam-al Anbiya to construct a tram network in the city.[98] The Isfahan Metro was opened on 15 October 2015. It consists of one north–south line with a length of 20.2 kilometres (12.6 mi), and two more lines are under construction, alongside three suburban rail lines.[99]

The city is served by a railway station, with the Islamic Republic of Iran Railways running trains to Bandarabbas and Mashhad. The first high-speed railway in Iran, the Tehran-Qom-Isfahan line is being constructed to connect Isfahan to Tehran and Qom.[100]

Airports

Isfahan is served by Isfahan Shahid Beheshti International Airport, which in 2019 was the 7th busiest airport in Iran, and is adjacent to Khatami Air Base.[101][81]

Economy

Main article: Economy in Isfahan
An old master of hand-printed carpets in Isfahan bazaar

In 2014, industry, mines, and commerce in Isfahan province accounted for 35% to 50% (almost $229 billion) of the Iranian Gross Domestic Product.[102][103] In 2019, Isfahan province's governorate said that tourism was the number one priority.[104]

According to Isfahan province's administrator for Department of Cooperatives, Labour, and Social Welfare, Iran had the cheapest labor workforce anywhere in the world. The labor force had grown from 1990 to 2020.[105][106] However, in 2018 the unemployment rate was 15%.[107]

The Esfahan Province Electricity Distribution Company, established in 1992, maintains a privatized power grid in the city.[108][109]

As of September 2020, the handicrafts industry of Isfahan Province was contributing $500 million annually to the economy.[110]Isfahan Fair, a 22-hectare (54-acre) exhibition center aimed at increasing tourism, is under construction. The municipality has implemented internet payment software.[111][112]

In 2025 Zimbabwe signed MaU around trade with the city.[113]

Aquaculture and agriculture

Main article: List of canals in Isfahan

Isfahan city produces 1,300 tons of salmon. More than 28% of the country's ornamental fish is supplied from Isfahan province, from 780 farms, which in 2017 farmed 65.5 million fish.[114]

Opium was produced and exported from Isfahan from 1850 until it became illegal, and was an important source of income.[115] Isfahan has a large number of aqueducts, farmers having to divert water from the river to farms by canal.[116] Niasarm is one of the largest canals.[117]

From 2012 to 2013 there were large protests by farmers against the Isfahan-Yazd water tunnel. In 2019, eastern city farmers demanded water, otherwise they would sabotage water pipes.[118][119] Fruits and vegetables central market is where farmers sell their product wholesale, selling 10,000 tons a day.[120]

High tech and heavy industries

The industrialization of Isfahan dates from the Pahlavi period, as in all of Iran, and was marked by the growth of the textile industry, which earned the city the nickname "Manchester of Persia".[121] The Isfahan Scientific and Research Town started in 2001, to act as a mediator between government, industry, and academia in establishing a knowledge-based economy.[122] Isfahan is the third-largest medicine manufacturing hub in Iran.[123]

The Telecommunication Company of Iran and the Mobile Telecommunication Company of Iran provide 4G, 3G, broadband, and VDSL.[124][125]

Recreation and tourism

Tourism logo by the Isfahan Province Chamber of commerce
Detail of Ali Qapu Palace in Isfahan

In 2018–19 some 450,000 foreign nationals visited the city. Some 110 trillion rials (over $2 billion at the official rate of 42,000 rials in 2020) were invested in the province's tourism sector.[126]

Nazhvan Park hosts a reptile zoo with 40 aquariums.[127] There are the Saadi water park and the Nazhvan water park for children.[128] There are party gardens and wedding halls.[129][130][131]

Iran – Esfehan – Soffeh view ^ Telecabin station – panoramio

Medical tourism

The Isfahan Healthcare city complex, built on a 300 hectares (740 acres) site near the Aqa Babaei Expressway, is intended to boost the city's medical tourism revenues.[132]

Shopping

Isfahan City Center

The city is served by Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Isfahan City Center, Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc., and Kowsar Market.[133]

Cinemas

There are nine cinemas.[134] Historically, cinemas in old Isfahan were entertainment for the worker class.

Religious people considered cinema to be mostly an impure place and going to the cinema to be haram under Islam. During the 1979 revolution, many cinemas in Isfahan were burned down. Cinema Iran, now a ruin, was one of the oldest cinemas in the city. Great foreign filmmakers such as Agnès Varda and Pier Paolo Pasolini shot scenes from their films in Isfahan.[135][136][137]

Sports

Main articles: Naqsh-e jahan Derby and Isfahan Province League
Naghsh-e Jahan Stadium

Isfahan has three association football clubs including Sepahan S.C., Zob Ahan Isfahan F.C., Sanaye Giti Pasand F.C.,Polyacryl Esfahan F.C. (historic).

Sepahan has won the most league football titles among Iranian clubs (2002–03, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 and 2014–15).[138] The Foolad Mobarakeh Sepahan handball team plays in the Islamic Republic of Iran Handball Federation. Sepahan has a youth women running team that became national champions in 2020.[139]

Giti Pasand has a futsal team, Giti Pasand FSC. They won the AFC Futsal Club Championship in 2012 and were runners-up in 2013. Giti Pasand also fields a women's volleyball team, Giti Pasand Isfahan VC, that plays matches in the Iranian Women's Volleyball League.[140] Basketball clubs include Zob Ahan Isfahan BC and Foolad Mahan Isfahan BC.[141] There are Pahlevani zoorkhanehs in the city.[142]

Demographics

Historical population
YearPop.±% p.a.
187060,000—    
189090,000+2.05%
1900100,000+1.06%
192080,000−1.11%
1933100,100+1.74%
1942204,600+8.27%
1956254,700+1.58%
1966444,000+5.71%
1976671,800+4.23%
1986986,800+3.92%
19911,182,735+3.69%
19961,327,283+2.33%
20011,502,567+2.51%
20061,689,392+2.37%
20111,853,293+1.87%
20161,961,260+1.14%
source:[143]

In 2019, the mean age for first marriages was 25 years for females and 30 years for males.[144][145]

There are almost 500,000 people living in slums, including in the northern part, and especially in the eastern sector of the city.[146]

Esfahani is one of the main dialects of Western Persian.[147][148] Jewish districts speak a unique dialect.[149]

During the Pahlavi era, a large group of the Kurdish Gulbaghi tribe were moved from the north of Kurdistan province to the city of Isfahan and the cities of Kashan and Naein. Today, the Gulbaghi tribe are mostly assimilated elements in the population of these cities.[150][151]

While immigrants may reside and work in this city, in 12 surrounding communities they are denied entry.[152]

Religion

There are many churches and synagogues in the city, with the churches being for the most part in New Julfa.

Mosques

Imamzadehs (shrine tombs)

Churches and cathedrals

Further information: List of Armenian churches in Iran

Churches are mostly located in the New Julfa region. The oldest is St. Jakob Church (1607). Some other historically important ones are St. Georg Church (17th century), St. Mary Church (1613), Bedkhem Church (1627), and Vank Cathedral (1664).[155] Pacifique de Provins established a French mission in the city in 1627.

Synagogues

  • Kenisa-ye Bozorg (Mirakhor's kenisa)
  • Kenisa-ye Molla Rabbi
  • Kenisa-ye Sang-bast
  • Mullah Jacob Synagogue
  • Mullah Neissan Synagogue
  • Kenisa-ye Keter David

Civic administration

Main articles: Politics in Isfahan, Municipality of Isfahan, Isfahan Police, and Isfahan Governorate
See also: Isfahan (electoral district), Greater Isfahan Region, and Districts of Isfahan
Old Isfahan city hall
Isfahan city greenspace share atlas data 2020

Isfahan has a smart city program, a unified human resources administration system, and a transport system. It also has waste management.[156][157][158][159][160]

In 2015, the comprehensive atlas of the Isfahan metropolis, an online statistical database in Farsi, was made available, to help in planning.[161][162][163]

In 2020, the municipality directly employed 6,250 people with an additional 3,000 people in 16 subsidiary organizations.[164]

There have been four development programs since 1967,[165] In 2020, the municipality created a document outlining future development programs for the city.[166]

The color theme for the city has been turquoise for some time.[167]

Municipal government

The mayor is Ghodratollah Noroozi. The chairman of the city council is Alireza Nasrisfahani. There is also a leadership council within the city council.[168][169] The representative of the Supreme Leader of Iran, as well as the representative from Isfahan in the Assembly of Experts, is Yousef Tabatabai Nejad.[170]

The city is divided into 15 municipal districts.

Public works

City waste is processed and recycled at the Isfahan Waste Complex.[171]

The Isfahan Water and Sewage Company is responsible for piping water, waterworks installation and repair, maintaining sewage equipment, supervising sewage collection, and treatment and disposal of sewage in the city.[172][173]

Twenty five fire departments provide service.[174] Twenty private security armed service contractors existed as of 2012.[175]

Human resources and public health

As of June 2020, 65% of the population of Isfahan province had social security insurance.[176]

Isfahan is known as the multiple sclerosis capital of the world, due to the presence of polluting industries.[177]

In 2015, almost 15% of the people suffered from depression, from being cut off from the Zayandeh River, due to severe drought.[178] A male empowerment/rehab center opened in 2023, followed by a female support addiction center.[179][180][181][182]

Mass surveillance

In 2024–25, the Iranian government used the city as a testing ground for enforcing the democratically supportedhijab laws, employing cameras for surveillance and deploying government agents to report women who do not adhere to the government-approved hijab dress code.[183]

Education and science

Further information: List of universities in Isfahan Province
Main articles: Education Department of Isfahan and List of universities in Iran § Isfahan
Further information: List of schools in Iran § Isfahan, and List of Isfahan schools

The first elementary schools in the city were maktabkhanehs.[184][185][186][187] In World War II, Polish children sought refuge in the city; eight primary and technical trade schools were established. Between 1942 and 1945, approximately 2,000 children passed through, with Isfahan briefly gaining the nickname "City of Polish Children".[188][189] In 2019, there were 20 schools for trainables attended by 5,000 children.[190]

Notable schools

Central Municipal Library of Esfahan

In total, there are more than 7,329 schools in Isfahan province.[192]

Colleges

In 1947, the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences was established; it now has almost 9,200 students and interns.[193] In 1973, the American School of Isfahan was built; it closed during the 1978–79 revolution. In 1974, the first technical university in Iran, the Isfahan University of Technology, was established in the city.[194] It focuses on science, engineering, and agriculture programs.[195] In 1977, the Isfahan University of Art was established. It was temporarily closed after the 1979 revolution, and was reopened in 1984, after the Iranian Cultural Revolution.[196]

Aside from seminaries and religious schools, the other public, private major universities of the Isfahan metropolitan area include: the Mohajer Technical And Vocational College of Isfahan, Payame Noor University, the Islamic Azad University of Isfahan, the Islamic Azad University of Najafabad, and the Islamic Azad University of Majlesi.

There were also in 2007 more than 50 technical and vocational training centres in the province, under the administration of the Isfahan Technical and Vocational Training Organization (TVTO), that provide free, non-formal, workforce-skills training programs.[197] As of 2020, 90% of workforce-skills trainees were women.[198]

Notable philosophers

See also: School of Isfahan

Major philosophers include Mir Damad, known for his concepts of time and nature, as well as for founding the School of Isfahan,[199] and Mir Fendereski, who was known for his examination of art and philosophy within a society.[200]

Culture

Main article: Culture in Isfahan

Ancient traditions included Tirgan, Sepandārmazgān festivals, and historically, men used to wear the Kolah namadi.[201][202]

The Isfahan School of painting flourished during the Safavid era.[203][204][205]

The annual Isfahan province theatre festival takes place in the city.[206] Theater performances began in 1919 (1297 AH), and currently there are 9 active theaters.[207][208][209]

The awarding of an Isfahan annual literature prize began in 2004.[210][211]

Since 2005, November 22 is Isfahan's National Day, commemorated with various events.[212]

New Art Paradise, built in District 6 in 2019, has the biggest open-air amphitheatre in the country.[213]

Based on a statue creators' symposium in 2020, the city decided to add 11 permanent art pieces to the city's monuments.[214]

The Isfahan international convention center is under construction.[215]

Cuisine

Isfahan Beryani

Gosh-e fil and Doogh are local snacks.[216][217] Other traditional breakfasts, desserts, and meals include Khoresht mast, Beryani, and meat with beans and pumpkin aush.[218][219][220][221][222][223][224] Gaz & Poolaki are two Iranian candies types that originated in Isfahan.

Teahouses are supervised and allowed to offer Hookah until 2022.[225] As of 2020, there were almost 300 teahouses with permits.[226]

Music

The Bayat-e Esfahan is one of the modes used in Iranian traditional music.

On 12 and 13 January 2018, the Iranian singer Salar Aghili performed in the city without the female members of his band, due to interference by local officials at the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance.[227]

News media

During the Qajar era, Farhang, the first newspaper publication in the city, was printed for 13 years.[228] Iran's Metropolises News Agency (IMNA), formerly called the Isfahan Municipality News Agency, is based in the city.[229] The state-controlled Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting system (IRIB) has a TV network and radio channel in the city.[230]

Cultural sites

See also: Isfahani style; Tourism in Iran; List of historical structures in Isfahan Province; and Hall of Art, Isfahan
A handicraft shop
Shah Mosque. Painting by the French architect, Pascal Coste, visiting Persia in 1841.
Si-o-se Pol
Naghsh-e-Jahan Square
View of Ali Qapu Palace
A carpet shop in Grand Bazaar, Isfahan
Khaju Bridge
Detail of Khaju Bridge
Armenian Vank Cathedral

The city centre consists of an older section centered around the Jameh Mosque, and the Safavid expansion around Naqsh-e Jahan Square, with nearby palaces, bazaars, and places of worship,[231] which is called Seeosepol.[232]

Baths

Ancient baths include the Jarchi hammam and the bathhouse of Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī; a public bath called "Garmabeh-e-shaykh" in Isfahan, which for many years was running and providing hot water to the public without any visible heating system which would usually need tons of wood, was built by Baha' al-din al-'Amili.[233][234][235][236] The Khosro Agha hammam was demolished by unknown persons in 1992. The Ali Gholi Agha hammam is another remaining bathhouse. Chardin writes that the number of baths in Isfahan in the Safavid era was 273.[237]

Bazaars

The Grand Bazaar, Isfahan, and its entrance, the Qeysarie Gate, were built in the 17th century. Social hubs were opium dens and coffeehouses clustered around the Chahar bagh and the Chehel Sotoun. The best-known traditional coffeehouse is Qahva-ḵāna-ye Golestān.[238][237][239][240][241][242]

Cemeteries

The Bagh-e Rezvan Cemetery is one of the biggest and most advanced in the country.[243] Other cemeteries include the New Julfa Armenian Cemetery and the Takht-e Foulad.

Gardens and parks

The Pardis Honar Park, in District 6, has cost 30 billion toman as of 2018.[244] Some other zoological gardens and parks (including public and private beach parks, and non-beach parks) are: Birds Garden, Flower Garden of Isfahan, Nazhvan Recreational Complex, Shahre royaha amusement park, and the East Park of Isfahan.[245]

Historical houses

The Alam's house is a historical house in Isfahan. The owner of the house was one of the Qajar aristocrats. The house has a yard, which is surrounded from every side by residential parts.[246] The Amin's House as a historical house located in Isfahan belongs to the Qajar era. There are many decorations such as stucco, mirror decorations and marquetry doors in the house.[246] There are other historical houses in Isfahan, including Malek Vineyard, Qazvinis' House, Sheykh ol-Eslam's House, Constitution House of Isfahan.

Mausoleums and tombs

Mausoleums and tombs located in Isfahan are Al-Rashid Mausoleum (12th century), Baba Ghassem Mausoleum (14th century),Mausoleum of Safavid Princes, Nizam al-Mulk Tomb (11th century), Saeb Mausoleum, Shahshahan mausoleum (15th century), Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum (14th century).

Minarets

Menar Jonban was built in the 14th century. The tomb is an Iwan measuring 10 metres (33 ft) high.[247] Other menars include Ali minaret (11th century), Bagh-e-Ghoushkhane minaret (14th century), Chehel Dokhtaran minaret (12 century), Dardasht minarets (14th century), Darozziafe minarets (14th century), and Sarban minaret.

Museums

There are some museums in Isfahan such as Museum of Contemporary Art (17th-century building), Isfahan City Center museum (mall established 2012), Museum of Decorative Arts (1995), Natural History Museum of Isfahan (1988, 15th-century building).

Palaces and caravanserais

Palaces and caravanserais located in Isfahan includes Ali Qapu (Imperial Palace, early 17th century), Chehel Sotoun (Palace of Forty Columns, 1647), Hasht Behesht (Palace of Eight Paradises, 1669), Talar-e-Ashraf (Palace of Ashraf) (1650), Shah Caravanserai.

Squares and streets

A view of Meydan Kohne

Chaharbagh Boulevard (1596), Chaharbagh-e-khajou Boulevard, Meydan Kohne (Old Square), Naqsh-e Jahan Square also known as Shah Square or Imam Square (1602), Amadegah,[248][249] Taleghani Street (Shah Street)[250] are squares and streets in Isfahan.

Other sites

Gavart village pigeon towers

Isfahan has other places to visit, including Atashgah – a Zoroastrian fire temple, New Julfa (1606), Pigeon Towers that are placed all around the city namely 22 towers inside Gavart, Hase[251][252][253][254][255] – 17th century, Isfahan Observatory, Asarkhane Shahi.

International relations

Since 1994, Isfahan has been a member of the League of Historical Cities and a full member of Inter-City Intangible Cultural Cooperation Network.[256][257]

The Chinese have expressed readiness to be the first country that opens a consulate in a diplomatic zone in the central city.[258]

Isfahan allows Afghan nationals to reside in the city. In 2019, prior to a census, it was predicted there would be 250,000 undocumented Afghanis.[259]

There are plans to create a diplomatic district next to the Imam Khamenei international convention center where foreign countries would locate their consulates.[98]

The building housing the General Consulate of the Russian Federation in Isfahan is a registered cultural heritage site.[260]

The Isfahan municipality created a citizen diplomacy service program to boost establishing connections with sister cities around the world.[261][262][263][264]

Twin towns – sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran
Esfahan Street in Kuala Lumpur, and Kualalampur Avenue in Isfahan

Isfahan is twinned with:[265][266]

  1. China Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (1989)
  2. Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1997)
  3. Italy Florence, Italy (1998)
  4. Romania Iași, Romania (1999)
  5. Spain Barcelona, Spain
  6. Armenia Yerevan, Armenia (2000)
  7. Germany Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2000)
  8. Kuwait Kuwait City, Kuwait (2000)
  9. Cuba Havana, Cuba (2001)
  10. Pakistan Lahore, Pakistan (2004)
  11. Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia (2004)
  12. Senegal Dakar, Senegal (2009)
  13. Lebanon Baalbek, Lebanon (2010)
  14. UzbekistanSamarkand, Uzbekistan since July 2021
  15. PortugalPorto, Portugal since July 2021
  16. RussiaKazan, Russia 2025 [267]
  17. South Korea Gyeongju, South Korea (2013)[268]

Cooperation agreements

Isfahan cooperates with:

In addition, the New Julfa quarter of Isfahan has friendly relations with:[269]

Notable people

Music
Film
Craftsmen and painters
Political figures
Religious figures
Sportspeople
Writers and poets
Others

2025 Ammunition factory explosion

On 29 April 2025, an explosion occurred at a company warehouse of Ava Nar, a Persian gunpowder manufacturer, located in central Isfahan. In the explosion two people were killed and two others were injured. The cause of the explosion is yet to be known. This event took place only three days after the explosion at the Shahid Rajaee port.[288]

  • Persian pottery from the city of Isfahan, 17th century
    Persian pottery from the city of Isfahan, 17th century
  • Isfahan, capital of the Kingdom of Persia
    Isfahan, capital of the Kingdom of Persia
  • Si-o-se-pol Bridge by Cornelis de Bruijn, 1705
    Si-o-se-pol Bridge by Cornelis de Bruijn, 1705
  • Isfahan to the south side, drawing by Eugène Flandin
    Isfahan to the south side, drawing by Eugène Flandin
  • Ali minaret, 1840, drawing by Eugène Flandin
    Ali minaret, 1840, drawing by Eugène Flandin
  • Russian army in Isfahan in the 1890s
    Russian army in Isfahan in the 1890s

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled Ispahan or Espahan.

References

Citations

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Works cited

  • Matthee, Rudi (2012). Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1845117450.

Further reading

See also: Bibliography of the history of Isfahan
  • Kheirandish, Elaheh. Baghdad and Isfahan: A Dialogue of Two Cities in an Age of Science CA. 750–1750 (Harvard UP, 2021) excerpt
  • Yves Bomati; Houchang Nahavandi (2017). Parviz Amouzegar (ed.). Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia, 1587–1629. Translated by Azizeh Azodi. Los Angeles: Ketab Corporation. ISBN 978-1595845672.
  • Dehghan, Maziar (2014). Management in IRAN. ISBN 978-600-04-1573-0.
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